1、IPT= fta,College ofEngineering Center for Environmental Research and Technology University ofCalifornia Riverside, California Hydrogen Fuel for Surface Transportation Joseph M. Norbeck James W. Heffel Thomas D. Durbin Bassam Tabbara JohnM. Bowden Michelle C. Montano Published by: Society ofAutomotiv
2、e Engineers, Inc. 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale,PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Phone: (412) 776-4841 Fax: (412) 776-5760Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Copyright 1996 Society ofAutomotive Engineers, Inc. ISBN 1-56091-684-2 All rights reserved. Printed in the United States ofAmerica. Perm
3、ission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers,MA 01923. Special requests shoul 1-56091-684-2/96 $.50 SAE Order No. R-160 personal use of specific clients, is grantedbySAE for l
4、ibraries provided that the base fee of$.50 per page is paid directly to be addressed to theSAE Publications Group. Hydrogen fuel for surface transportation /Joseph M. Norbeck. et al. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-56091-684-2 1. Hydrogen cars. 2. Hydrogen as fuel. 3. Fu
5、el cells. I. Norbeck, Joeseph M., 1943- TL229.H9H94 1996 629.2538-dc2O 96-38602 CIPDedication To Dr. Robert M. Zweig, whose longstanding commitment to the advancement ofhydrogen as a clean fuel has been a source ofinspiration to many iiiContents Preface ix Chapter 1: Introduction .1 References .3 Ch
6、apter 2: Hydrogen Engines and Vehicles: Characteristics and Development .5 2.1 Introduction 5 2.2 General Properties ofHydrogen as a Fuel .6 2.3 Special Characteristics ofa Hydrogen Engine .8 2.4 On-Board Storage Systems .16 2.5 Conclusion 22 References 22 Reprints: Fuel Induction Techniquesfora Hyd
7、rogen OperatedEngine L.M. Das 27 TrendofSocial Requirements and Technological Development of Hydrogen-FueledAutomobiles S. Furuhama . 37 Hythane-An Ultraclean Transportation Fuel V. Raman, J. Hansel, J. Fulton, F. Lynch, D. Bruderly 47 Germanys Contribution to the Demonstrated Technical Feasibility
8、ofthe LiquidHydrogen FueledPassengerAutomobile W. Peschka, W.J.D. Escher .57 Chapter 3: Fuel Cells 75 3.1 Introduction .75 3.2 What is a Fuel Cell? .76 3.3 Theoretical Background for Fuel Cells .77 3.4 Types ofFuel Cells 78 3.5 Principles ofLow Temperature Alkaline Fuel Cells 79 3.6 The Solid Polyme
9、r Fuel Cell or Proton ExchangeMembrane Fuel Cell80 3.7 High Temperature Fuel Cells .83 3.8 Developing Fuel Cells for Vehicular Applications .85 3.9 Systems Engineering Aspects .87 3.10 Recent Developments with Fuel Cells .89 3.11 Conclusion 91 References 91 Reprints: Hydrogen-Air Fuel Cells ofthe Al
10、kaline Matrix Type: Manufacture and Impregnation ofElectrodes D. Staschewski 95 High-Temperature Fuel Cells; Part 1:How the Molten Carbonate Cell Works and the Materials ThatMake it Possible N.Q. Minh 103 High-Temperature Fuel Cells; Part 2: The Solid Oxide Cell N.Q. Minh 109 vHydrogenfrom Methanol:
11、 Fuel Cells in Mobile Systems B. Ganser and B. H PhosphoricAcidFuel CellBus Development A. Kaufman . Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell SystemR Bassam Tabbara contributed to Chapters 3, 6, and 7; JohnM. Bowden contributed to Chapters 4 and 6; and Michelle C. Montano contributed to Chapter 5. H
12、elenKu assisted with the preparation of the final manuscript. This book is based on information collected in acomprehensive literature survey which was performed as part ofa larger project funded by the South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD). The opinions, findings, recommenda- tions a
13、nd/or conclusions do not necessarily represent the views of the SCAQMD. TheSCAQMD has not approved or disapproved of this books contents, norhas theSCAQMD passedjudgementupon the accuracy oradequacy of the infor- mation presented herein. Since the field ofhydrogen for surface transportation is evolv
14、ing so rapidly, information on current developments in the field ofhydrogen-fueled vehicles and the hydrogen economy can be obtained directly fromCE-CERT at (909) 781-5791. Joseph M. Norbeck James W. Heffel Thomas D. Durbin Bassam Tabbara JohnM. Bowden Michelle C. Montano Riverside, California April
15、 1995 ixChapter I Introduction Over the past two decades there has been considerable effort in the United States to develop and introduce alter- native transportation fuels to replace conventional fuels such as gasoline and diesel. Environmental issues, most notably air pollution, are among the prin
16、cipal driving forces behind this movement. Emissions from transporta- tion sources are currently the dominant source of air pollu- tion, representing 70% of carbon monoxide, 41% of nitrogen oxides (NOx), and 38% of hydrocarbon emis- sions in the United States 1. The transportation sector also accoun
17、ts for about 30% of the man-made emissions of the greenhouse gas CO2 in the United States 1 and about 25% of man-made CO2 emissions globally 2. While the effects of increasing concentrations ofCO2 and other greenhouse gases on global temperature and climate patterns are difficult to quantify, many s
18、cientists argue that ignoring the possibility of dramatic climate change is unwise (for a discussion of the uncertainties surrounding the greenhouse effect refer to 3-8). The push to expand the use of alternative fuels in the United States is also motivated by the need for energy security. The Unite
19、d States is the worlds largest energy consumer and its second largest producer. Current trends indicate that both U.S. consumption and the percentage of oil that is supplied by imports will continue to increase. Estimates by the Energy Information Administration pre- dict that the percentage of U.S.
20、 petroleum supplied by imports will increase from 39 percent in 1990 to 60 per- cent by the year 2010. Total imports ofpetroleum are thus projected to increase from 6.7 million barrels per day in 1990 to 12.8 million barrels in 2010 9. This is particu- larly problematic given that the politically un
21、stable Mid- dle East region holds a majority of the proven resources of crude oil and will likely have a stronghold on the oil mar- ket for the foreseeable future. Over the years, these concerns and governmental regula- tions have stimulated research and development programs for alternative fuels an
22、d alternative fuel vehicles. To date, the bulk of this research has focused on carbon-based fuels such as reformulated gasoline, methanol, and natural gas. While vehicles utilizing such fuels have demon- strated the ability to meet the stringent new California standards (transitional low emission ve
23、hicle TLEV, low emission vehicle LEV, and ultra-low emission vehicle ULEV), carbon-based fuels will always release carbon dioxide and some amount of hydrocarbons as part of the combustion process. Additionally, carbon-based fuels such as reformulated gasoline and natural gas are pro- duced from nonr
24、enewable sources and thus will eventu- ally be subject to the problem oflimited availability. One alternative to carbon-based fuels is hydrogen. For years, hydrogen advocates have promoted the use of hydrogen as a long-range solution to the problems associ- ated with fossil fuel use. This idea is ev
25、en found in Jules Vernes “The Mysterious Island,“ a science fiction novel written in the 1870s. In one passage he writes, “.water will one day be employed as fuel, that hydrogen and oxy- gen which constitute it, used singly or together, will fur- nish an inexhaustible source of heat and light, of an
26、 intensity of which coal is not capable I believe, then, thatwhen the deposits ofcoal are exhausted, we shall heat and warm ourselves with water. Water will be the coal of the future. Hydrogen has been used extensively since it was first iso- lated by Henry Cavendish in 1766, and it is currently use
27、d in anumber ofindustrial applications. Although hydrogen is not abundant as a gas on earth, it can be synthesized from coal, oil, or natural gas, or obtained from water using electrolysis. As a fuel, hydrogen emits only minimal amounts of pollutants. When it is burned in an internal combustion engi
28、ne, the primary combustion product is water with no CO2. Although some NOx emissions are formed when hydrogen is used in an internal combustion engine, hydrogen is still the cleanest fuel for internal com- bustion engine applications. Alternatively, hydrogen can be used essentially emission-free in
29、a fuel cell. 1Hydrogen Fuelfor Surface Transportation Since the 1970s, modem researchers have investigated the potential of using hydrogen as a fuel for surface transpor- tation. Today, these research efforts continue to gain momentum. Mercedes-Benz, BMW, and Mazda are all demonstrating hydrogen veh
30、icles. The Big Three auto- makers in the United States (Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler) are working on the development of fuel cells for vehicular applications. There are also several programs in Europe to investigate the use of hydrogen as a fuel for vehicles, including theEUREKA fuel cell demo
31、nstration project, the Swiss-German cooperative “hydrogen pow- ered applications using seasonal and weekly surplus of electricity“ (HYPASSE) program, and the Euro Quebec Hydro Hydrogen Pilot Project (EQHHPP) to look at ship- ping hydrogen produced from off-peak hydropower in Canada to Europe for use
32、 as a fuel. Although there has been rapid progress in the develop- ment ofhydrogen-related technologies, anumber ofobsta- cles must still be overcome before hydrogen can be considered a viable and competitive fuel. The purpose of this book is to review the accomplishments of research in this area ov
33、er the past two decades. While hydrogen can be used in a range of applications as a fuel, such as for aeronautical and space transportation, the focus here is on the use ofhydrogen for surface transportation and, in par- ticular, the use ofhydrogen in vehicular applications. This book is designed to
34、 serve as a reference for practicing engineers as well as those who are planning to study the potential ofhydrogen as an alternative transportation fuel. Each of the chapters is composed of two main sections: the first section is an introduction to the specific topic of the chapter, while the second
35、 contains recent articles about research on the topic. In the reprinted articles, the reader will find a more detailed description of some of the topics covered in the chapter. The book also contains a compre- hensive reference list arranged by subject, which is given in Appendix A. The book begins
36、by surveying, in Chapters 2 and 3, the development of power plants (specifically the internal combustion engine and the fuel cell) for hydrogen vehi- cles. The hydrogen fuel internal combustion engine is probably the most developed hydrogen power plant. An internal combustion engine operated on hydr
37、ogen has dif- ferent characteristics than that operated on gasoline, how- ever, due to hydrogens unique properties. Hydrogen engines have a tendency to ignite prematurely and pro- duce less power if liquid hydrogen or direct injection tech- nologies are not used. Advanced fuel delivery techniques an
38、d engine modifications have been investigated by researchers in an effort to alleviate these problems. As a result of hydrogens low volumetric energy density, on- board storage systems for hydrogen also experience some combination of weight and/or volume penalty, leading to reductions in performance
39、 and trunk or passenger space, as discussed in Chapter 2. The use of fuel cells in vehicles is one of the most rapidly advancing areas of hydrogen transportation research. These electrochemical engines offer the potential for emission-free operation and have higher efficiencies than standard heat en
40、gines. Fuel cell technology is still not fully developed, however. The materials used to make fuel cells are expensive and include platinum and special- ized polymers. There has been some important research leading to cost reductions in fuel cells, however, espe- cially in the reduction of the amoun
41、t of platinum used. Another important focus offuel cell research is the need to increase the power density of the fuel cells themselves. These issues are discussed in Chapter 3. An important issue over the longer term will be the devel- opment of an extensive hydrogen infrastructure including large-
42、scale hydrogen production and distribution. These issues are addressed in Chapters 4 and 6. Chapter 4 reviews the technical aspects of hydrogen production, while Chapter 6 focuses on economic and practical issues that will have to be addressed to develop ahydrogen infra- structure. Hydrogen produced
43、 from fossil fuels is cur- rently more costly than other fuels such as natural gas or gasoline, and producing hydrogen from renewable sources is even more expensive. Technologies for producing hydrogen from renewable sources are advancing rapidly, however, and could be available at competitive price
44、s for some applications in the foreseeable future. Developing a large-scale distribution system is anothermajor obstacle to achieving a so-called hydrogen economy. Thus, hydrogen will initially have to be introduced into smaller-scale mar- kets, such as fleet operations. Aside from these technical a
45、nd economic issues, the issue ofpublic perception is important. Currently, hydrogen has a poor reputation with regard to safety, due in part to the visibility of events such as the Hindenburg accident. Although hydrogen poses some unique dangers due to its properties, it does not appear that these dangers are neces- sarily any greater than those of using other fuels, given proper precautions. In fact, hydrogens overall safety 2
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