SAE R-227-2003 Alternative Cars in the 21st Century A New Personal Transportation Paradigm (Second Edition To Purchase Call 1-800-854-7179 USA Canada or 303-397-7956 Worldwide).pdf

1、Alternative Cars in the 21st Century A New Personal Transportation Paradigm Second EditionOther SAE titles of interest: 2003 Alternative Fuels Technology Collection on CD-ROM (Order No. ALTFUEL2003) Fuel Cell Powered Vehicles: Automotive Technology of the FutureUpdate by Daniel J. Holt (Order No. T-

2、114) Hydrogen and Its Future as a Transportation Fuel Edited by Daniel J. Holt (Order No. PT-95) Intelligent Vehicle Technologies by L. Vlacic, F. Harashima, and M. Parent (Order No. R-310) Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design by Ron Hodkinson and John Fenton (Order No. R-316) Nonlinear and Hy

3、brid Systems in Automotive Control Edited by Rolf Johansson and Anders Rantzer (Order No. R-348) For more information or to order this book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-0790; e-mail: CustomerServicesae.org; website: http:/store.sae.

4、orgAlternative Cars in the 21st Century A New Personal Transportation Paradigm Second Edition Robert Q. Riley with contributions by Dr. Wonshik Chee Warrendale, Pa. Copyright 1994, 2004 SAE International eISBN: 978-0-7680-4776-9All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stor

5、ed in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. For permission and licensing requests, contact: SAE Permissions 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA Tel:

6、 724-772-4028 Fax: 724-772-4891 E-mail: permissionssae.org Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Riley, Robert Q., 1940 Alternative cars in the twenty-first century : a new personal transportation paradigm / Robert Q. Riley ; with contributions by Dr. Wonshik Chee.2nd ed. p. cm. Include

7、s bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7680-0874-3 1. AutomobilesResearch. 2. AutomobilesTechnological innovations. 3. Alternative fuel vehicles. 4. Automobile industry and tradeTechnological innovations. I. Title: Alternative cars in the 21st century. II. Title. TL158.R55 2003 333.47629222d

8、c21 2003050557 SAE 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-1615 E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Copyright 1994, 2004 SAE International ISBN: 0-7680-0874-3 SAE Order No. R-227 Printed in the United States of

9、 America.To Cindy My daughter and single mother of four, from whom I continue to learn the true meaning of love and commitmentSaid the Eye one day, “I see beyond these valleys a mountain veiled with blue mist. Is it not beautiful? The Ear listened and after listening intently awhile, said, “But wher

10、e is any mountain? I do not hear it.“ Then the Hand spoke and said, “I am trying in vain to feel it or touch it, and I can find no mountain.“ And the Nose said, “There is no mountain, I cannot smell it.“ Then the Eye turned the other way, and they all began to talk together about the Eyes strange de

11、lusion. And they said, “Something must be the matter with the Eye.“ Kahlil Gibran, The Madman Reprinted with permission from The Madman, by Kahlil Gibran, 1982, Random HouseCONTENTS Foreword xvii Acknowledgments xxi Introduction xxiii CHAPTER ONE Personal Mobility in Crisis 1 Population Growth and E

12、xpanding Industrialization 3 An Expanding World with Diminishing Petroleum Resources 7 Impact of Transportation Energy Use 13 Energy Demand in Developed Countries 16 Blight of Urban Traffic 20 Conventional Ideas for Taming the Automobile 23 Controlling the Automobile with Higher Fuel Costs 26 Overlo

13、ading the Environment with Waste Products 28 Global Warming and Climatic Change 29 A New Paradigm for Personal Mobility 32 CHAPTER TWO Personal Mobility Vehicles for the 21st Century 37 A New Perspective on Personal Mobility Solutions 38 Reducing the Hardware Overhead of Personal Mobility 42 Impact

14、of Vehicle Size on Traffic Congestion 47 Impact of Vehicle Mass on Emissions 49 Ultra-Low-Mass Personal Mobility Products 51 Ultra-Low-Mass Multipurpose Passenger Car 51 Commuter Car 53 Narrow-Lane Vehicle 56 Urban Car 59 Sub-Car 61 ixx TABLE OF CONTENTS New Personal Mobility Products and the Market

15、place 66 Vehicle Theme 72 Occupant Zone 74 Seating Layout 75 Ingress and Egress 78 Modular Design 83 Flexible/Plastic Body Panels 84 Electronic Automobile 85 Three-Wheel Platform as a Marketing Tool 88 Potential Market for Alternative Cars 92 Vehicle Ownership and Use Trends 92 ULM Vehicle and Multi

16、vehicle Households 92 Effect of Reduced Seating Capacity 94 Market Impact of Battery-Electric Power 95 Subliminal Messages and New Consumer Values 97 A New Paradigm for Personal Transportation 98 Cars as a Subsystem of the Total Transportation System 100 Large-Scale Personal Mobility as an Outmoded

17、Concept 104 CHAPTER THREE The Technology of Fuel Economy 107 Ingredients of Fuel Economy 110 Urban Driving Cycle Patterns Effect on Fuel Economy 112 Accessory Loads 116 Road Load 117 Developing a Road Load Graph 119 Rolling Resistance 120 Tires: Balance Between Ride, Handling, and Drag 120 Other Com

18、ponents of Rolling Resistance 121 Automobile Aerodynamics 122 Working with the Relative Wind 124 Streamlining and Aerodynamic Drag 124 Profile Drag 127 Induced Drag 129 Parasitic Drag 129 Skin Friction 130 Internal Flow 131 Frontal Area 131Table of Contents xi Fuel-Efficient Powertrain 134 Prime Mov

19、er 134 Losses of Converting Fuel to Mechanical Power 134 Power and Fuel Efficiency Characteristics of the Reciprocating IC Engine 136 Challenge and Opportunity of Part-Load Fuel Consumption 137 Rotary Valves 141 Variable Compression Ratio 146 Variable Valve Actuation 148 Diesel Engine 154 Supercharg

20、ing 156 Low-Heat-Rejection Engines 158 Two-Stroke Cycle Engine 158 Active Thermo-Atmosphere Combustion 161 Transmission as a Tool for Reducing Fuel Consumption 162 Continuously Variable Transmissions 163 New Technology and Alternative Cars 169 CHAPTER FOUR Alternative Fuels 175 Advantages and Disadv

21、antages of Alternative Fuels 177 Alcohol Fuels 180 Ethanol (C2H5OH) 180 Methanol (CH3OH) 182 Source and Abundance 184 Environmental and Safety Factors 184 Compatibility with Current IC Engine Design 187 Cold-Starting 188 Lubricant Contamination 188 Increased Engine Wear 188 Materials Compatibility 1

22、89 Use in Fuel Cells 189 Liquefied Petroleum Gases 190 Source, Composition, and Properties 190 Vehicle Emissions 191 Vehicle Fuel System 192 Compatibility with IC Engines 193xii TABLE OF CONTENTS Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel 193 Source and Supply 194 Environmental and Safety Factors 197 Comp

23、atibility with Current Motor Vehicle Design 199 FUEL METERING 199 Onboard Storage of Natural Gas 201 COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS 201 LIQUEFIED NATURAL GAS 204 ADSORBENT STORAGE 205 DIFFICULTIES AND COSTS 206 ENHANCED CAPABILITY ANG STORAGE 207 CREATIVE TANK DESIGNS FOR ANG SYSTEMS 207 HOME REFUELING WITH

24、 NATURAL GAS 208 HYDROGEN/METHANE BLENDS 209 Hydrogen as a Fuel 209 Source and Abundance 211 Supply Infrastructure and Cost 211 Storage Technologies 214 Compatibility with IC Engine 216 Fuel Cell 216 Electric Power 217 Alternative Fuels in the 21st Century 219 CHAPTER FIVE Electric and Hybrid Vehicl

25、es 223 Battery-Electric Vehicles 224 Battery-Electric Cars: Their Energy Source and Emissions 226 Electric Vehicle Onboard Energy Flow 233 Regenerative Braking 234 Mechanical Overview 237 Electric Motor 238 Alternating Current for Electric Cars 241 Controller 242 PULSE-WIDTH MODULATOR 243 CONTROLLER

26、S FOR ALTERNATING CURRENT 244Table of Contents xiii MOTOR AS A SUBSYSTEM OF THE TRANSMISSION 245 INTEGRATED ELECTRONIC CONTROLS 247 Onboard Energy Storage 248 Lead-Acid Battery (Pb/Acid) 251 Aluminum-Air (Al/Air) 256 Lithium-Iron Sulfide (Li/FeS) 258 Lithium-Ion (Li/Ion) 258 Lithium Polymer Battery

27、(LPB) 259 Nickel-Cadmium (Ni/Cd) 260 Nickel-Iron Battery (Ni/Fe) 261 Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH) 262 Nickel-Zinc (Ni/Zn) 265 Sodium-Sulfur (Na/S) 266 Vanadium Redox Flow Battery 267 Zinc-Air Battery (Zn/Air) 269 Zinc-Bromine (Zn/Br) 271 Kinetic Energy Storage 271 Battery-Electric Vehicles and Vehicl

28、e Downsizing 274 Purpose-Built Battery-Electric Cars 275 General Motors EV-1 276 Ford TH!NK City 278 Nissan Hypermini 279 Hybrid-Electric Vehicles 280 Hybrid Configurations 281 SERIES HYBRID 282 PARALLEL HYBRID 285 Energy Storage Systems for HEVs 287 PRIME MOVERS FOR HEVS 288 FUEL CELLS 289 Producti

29、on and Prototype Hybrids 293 HONDA INSIGHT 293 TOYOTA PRIUS 295 FORD PRODIGY 297 GENERAL MOTORS PRECEPT 298 DAIMLERCHRYSLER DODGE ESX3 301 DAIMLERCHRYSLER NECAR 5 FUEL-CELL VEHICLE 302xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER SIX Three-Wheel Cars with Tilting Three-Wheel Vehicle Information by Tony Foale 307 Me

30、chanically Simple Design 309 Sports Car Handling 310 Rollover Threshold 313 Single Front or Single Rear Wheel 314 Single Front Wheel (1F2R) 316 Single Rear Wheel (2F1R) 318 Tandem or Side-by-Side Seating 320 Examples of Nontilting Three-Wheel Vehicles 321 TurboPhantom 321 VW Scooter 322 Trihawk 325

31、Tri-Magnum 327 Sparrow 329 Gizmo 329 Tilting Three-Wheelers 331 TTW Classification 333 WHEEL LAYOUT 333 LEAN CONTROL 333 LEAN LIMIT 334 NUMBER OF TILTING WHEELS 334 Dynamic Behavior of Tilting Three-Wheelers 336 Active Lean Control 337 CONTROL SYSTEM STRATEGIES 338 Tires 339 Suspension Loading 340 G

32、eneral Characteristics 340 1F2R with Nonleaning Rear Wheels 342 ROLLOVER THRESHOLD 342 ROLL/YAW COUPLING 344 PITCH/LEAN COUPLING 344 TTWs with All Leaning Wheels 347 TTWs with No Leaning Wheels 349Table of Contents xv Examples of Tilting Three-Wheelers 349 Transit Innovations Project 32 Slalom (U.S.

33、 Patents Pending, 19972001) 350 Mercedes F300 Life Jet (1997unknown) 352 Millennium Tracer (1996ongoing) 354 Calleja (U.S. Patent No. 5,611,555: 1997ongoing) 355 General Motors Lean Machine (late 1970searly 1980s) 359 Jephcotts Micro (U.S. patents allowed to lapse, early 1980s) 361 Vandenbrink Carve

34、r 362 Limitations of the Three-Wheel Configuration 364 Special Acknowledgment 365 CHAPTER SEVEN Safety and Low-Mass Vehicles 367 Vehicle Safety in Perspective 368 Accident Statistics and Automobile Size 372 Accident Statistics and Other Variables 374 Japanese Experience 378 Smaller Cars Require Bett

35、er Safety Engineering 380 Automobile Crash Dynamics 381 Occupant Crash Protection 384 Restraint Systems 388 SEAT BELTS 388 AIR BAGS 391 Intelligent Safety Systems 395 Crash Management Strategy for Low-Mass Vehicles 396 Advanced Systems for Improving Automobile Safety 400 New Standards for New Vehicl

36、e Types 405 Three-Wheel Cars 408 CHAPTER EIGHT Intelligent Transportation Systems by Dr. Wonshik Chee 413 1. What Is ITS? 414 2. What Is AVCS? 417xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS 3. Longitudinal Maneuvers 424 4. Lateral Maneuvers 430 5. Future of ITS 444 Special Acknowledgment 445 CHAPTER NINE Alternative Cars

37、 in Europe 449 Early European Microcars as a Metaphor of Their Environment 451 Isetta and Heinkel 452 Messerschmitt 455 Market Was Headed in the Opposite Direction 457 Transportation in a Revitalized Europe 459 European Transit Systems 462 Future of Microcars in Europe 464 Index 469 About the Author

38、 513FOREWORD Robert Rileys original 1994 edition of Alternative Cars in the 21st Century: A New Personal Transportation Paradigm arrived at a critical time and served a vital need. A new priority on electric cars was then stimulating public inter- est, regulatory attention, and many technological de

39、velopments. Information to the public was characterized by an overload of conjecture, complexity, and alternatives. Riley brought some clarity to the field. He put things in per- spective, backed up by quantitative exploration. Now it is nine years later. Many more forces and technologies have enter

40、ed the ring. The stakes are higher. This new, considerably revised edition appears at an even more criti- cal time. There are now many more complexities, alternatives, and overload from information and misinformation. Clarifying realities and providing perspective become more vital. Riley handles th

41、e task well. Throughout the 20th century, cars have been infiltrating into the very soul of the United States. In a symbiotic relationship, cars and highways created us as we created them. Cars came to define us: where we live relative to where we work, our recreations, our mating patterns, and our

42、self-esteem. A galac- tic observer, upon first looking down on the United States, might assume cars to be the dominant lifeform: they travel widely, avoid jostling each other, but congregate closely and rest regularly in giant meeting lots. Little two- legged subunits might be their slaves. Are the

43、galactic observers insights mistaken? In any case, use of cars grew huge because of the many benefits they provided us. When automotive technology changed, it was mostly by small steps, with an occasional kick from regulations about exhaust emis- sions, fuel economy (corporate average fuel economy C

44、AFE requirements), and safety. The 1990s initiated a decade of faster change. Sport utility vehi- cles (SUVs) and pickups, insulated from CAFE rules, became increasingly popular with customers whose interest in being in the heavier vehicle when collisions occurred outweighed concerns about poor fuel

45、 efficiency (or the fate of the occupants of the lighter vehicle). Manufacturers who had continu- ally lost money trying to market small, fuel-efficient cars now found profits in the heavier, low-mpg vehicles. In a broad sense, the people who design cars are the customers (aided of course by auto co

46、mpany engineers), and they have designed well, although more for individual than societal benefit. xviixviii FOREWORD An underlying theme of alternative cars is the combination of continuing to meet our needs for safe and convenient personal mobility while decreasing local and global pollution and o

47、ur dependence on nonrenewable energy sources. An obvious and practical strategy is adopting vehicles that do their job with much less energy. This cuts consumption (and preserves reserves) of conventional fuels and opens opportunities for alternative energies (mostly renewable, with low pollutant em

48、issions) that may initially be more expensive and less convenient. Rileys entrance into the mobility field came through small, very efficient vehiclesa better starting point for his ideas than if he had been embedded in the midst of the standard car field. I am perhaps biased in his favor because of

49、 having personally entered the serious mobility field from the standpoint of very efficient specialty vehicles that had to rely on the puny power of human muscles or photovoltaic cells. The alternative car field has evolved from a century featuring many car developments, both technological and societal. A significant modern change element emerged on January 3, 1990. The battery-powered GM Impact was first presented to the public at a press conference with Roger Smith, GMs chairman, presiding. I will never forget one of his prophetic remarks. He noted that auto