1、Fuel Cell POWERED VEHICLES Automotive Technology of the Future Update Daniel J. HoltFuel Cell Powered Vehicles: Automotive Technology of the FutureUpdate Daniel J. Holt Editor-at-Large Automotive Engineering International Copyright 2003 SAE International eISBN: 978-0-7680-7148-1All rights reserved.
2、No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. For permission and licensing requests, contact: SAE Permissions 400 Co
3、mmonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: permissionssae.org Tel: 724-772-4028 Fax: 724-772-4891 For multiple print copies, contact: SAE Customer Service E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-1615 ISBN 0-7680-108
4、4-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2002115657 Copyright 2003 SAE International Positions and opinions advanced in this book are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of SAE. The author is solely responsible for the content of the book. SAE Order No. T-114 Printed in the United States
5、 of America.Other SAE books of interest: Fuel Cell Powered Vehicles: Automotive Technology of the Future by Daniel J. Holt (Order No. RR-013) Fuel Cell Vehicles: Technology, Market, and Policy Issues by John M. DeCicco (Order No. RR-010) Fuel Cell Technology Handbook by Gregor Hoogers (Order No. R-3
6、05) For more information or to order this book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-1615; e-mail: CustomerServicesae.org; website: www.sae.org/STORE.Contents Preface 7 Executive Summary 11 Chapter One 15 The Fuel Cell Chapter Two 21 Vehicle
7、s Chapter Three 55 The Race Is On Chapter Four 59 Refueling Infrastructure Chapter Five 67 The Future References 71 About the Author 73 5Preface Advances in the fuel cell area have been progressing at a steady rate because the automo- tive industry is examining the powerplants and fuels that will po
8、wer the vehicles of the future. This Technology Profile is an update to the Technology Profile, Fuel Cell Pow- ered Vehicles: Automotive Technology of the Future (SAE Order No. RR-013), published in 2001. This update examines changes in the transportation industry and their effects on the fuel cell
9、industry. For a complete picture of the advances in fuel cell technology as it pertains to the transportation industry, it is suggested that both Technology Profiles be reviewed. For more than 100 years, we have been driving the same type of vehicle that is powered by virtually the same type of powe
10、rplant. Nikolaus A. Otto developed his atmospheric engine that became a prototype to the internal combustion engine in 1867. Otto with Gottlieb W. Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach experimented with the four-stroke gasoline- burning version in 1883. One wonders if they realized how long and what an impact
11、 their developments would have on the world. Many improvements have been made in these powerplant systems, but we still have the problem of emissions and the dependence on fossil fuels. Automakers are trying to reduce emissions, lower fuel consumption, improve reliability, and at the same time impro
12、ve performance. The search for a replacement or alternative fuel has been ongoing since the inception of the engine-driven “horseless“ carriage more than 100 years ago. The desire to reduce emissions and improve fuel economy while maintaining reliability is driving automotive manufacturers into new
13、areas of technology. During the last decade, a number of improvements have been made to the gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine. Changes ranging from increas- ing the number of valves to cylinder cutoffs to variable combustion chambers to direct injection improvements have helped to lower emi
14、ssions and either improve or maintain vehicle performance using the internal combustion engine (ICE). 7Diesel engines have made quite an impact in Europe and are slowly coming back into the United States. However, it appears that while diesel engines will remain popular in automobiles in Europe, mor
15、e light-duty trucks in the United States are being equipped with diesel engines. Large diesel engines have been the choice powerplant for heavy-duty trucks operating both on and off high- way. Locomotives and many ships also rely on diesel engines for power. In addition to improvements to the intern
16、al combustion engine, some auto- motive companies have combined the attributes of an internal combustion engine and an electric vehicle into what are commonly referred to as hybrid vehicles. The Japanese car companies have developed hybrid vehicles that use small internal combustion engines in conju
17、nction with battery power to lower emissions and improve fuel economy. These hybrid gasoline electric vehicles have done fairly well in the marketplace for Honda (Insight and Civic) and Toyota (Prius). Both Ford (Escape hybrid) and General Motors (Parallel hybrid truck) are planning to introduce hyb
18、rid vehicles in 2004. True electric vehicles (EVs) powered only by batteries have failed to impress consumers. Some of the very first vehicles produced were EVs powered by batteries. However, due to the lack of efficient, reliable batteries, these never achieved the consumer acceptance that the gaso
19、line internal combustion engine has maintained during the last 100 years. Several modern electric vehicles have been developed but failed to generate enough interest from consumers. General Motors cancelled the EV1 electric vehicle, and Ford has cancelled the Th!nk electric vehicle. Other major comp
20、anies have EVs that are basically sophisticated golf carts, which do not meet the needs of the driving public for driving range and performance. However, electric vehicles are the only technology that engineers currently have in their arsenal to meet the zero emissions mandate. This is where an elec
21、tric vehicle powered by a fuel cell can achieve zero emissions and reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. The fuel cell vehicle (FCV) obtains its energy from the chemical reaction of hydrogen and oxygen to produce electrical energy and water. The electrical energy that is created can be used to powe
22、r an electric drive motor. As long as the fuel cell has a source of hydrogen or other suitable fuel and oxygen, it will produce energy. Many challenges exist in the development of the fuel cell powered vehicle. In addition, there is the big question of creating the refueling infrastructure. 8The big
23、 challenge is not finding a source of suitable fuel to power the fuel cell, but who will bear the cost of creating the refueling stations. Also, deci- sions must be made regarding the fuel that should be used to power the fuel cell. Hydrogen is the current front-runner as the choice fuel for the pro
24、ton exchange membrane fuel cell. Also being developed are fuel cells that can use methanol as a fuel directly without reforming (i.e., converting it) into hydrogen. While these decisions are being made, some automotive compa- nies are introducing a new variable into the already complicated and convo
25、- luted powerplantfueldriveline scenario. Some companies such as Ford and BMW have been developing hydrogen- fueled internal combustion engine powered vehicles. These powerplants offer lower emissions to some degree but have other issues. These vehicles face the same problems that fuel cell powered
26、vehicles facethe lack of a hydrogen refueling infrastructure and how to store the hydrogen on-board the vehicles. However, in the interim while fuel cells are being perfected, the hydrogen-fueled internal combustion engine can lead to the formation of the hydrogen infrastructure that could make fuel
27、 cell vehicles more acceptable. Fuel cell powered vehicles are hindered by their high development cost in addition to the refueling infrastructure. However, they remain the front- runner for the zero emissions vehicle (ZEV) design that can achieve suitable driving range, top speed, 0100 km/L (062 mp
28、h) performance, and reliabil- ity. Car companies are conducting endurance testing on fuel cell vehicles in various temperature extremes, trips across the United States, and tours of the European countryside. In the 20032004 time frame, Honda, Toyota, DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and Nissan will produce a
29、small number of fuel cell powered vehicles for sale or lease in limited areas of the world where hydro- gen refueling stations are available. The testing of fuel cell powered vehicles is bringing down their overall cost. Current prices remain ten times higher than they must be for consumer acceptanc
30、e. The biggest challenge to the future of fuel cells is customer acceptance. Customers want vehicles that have a range of 300500 km (186310 miles) between fill-ups, are easy to refuel in a short time with a sufficient number of refueling stations, offer comparable safety to what customers now drive,
31、 and meet customers overall performance expectations. Although total vehicle price is important, consumers are buying sports cars, sport utility vehicles (SUVs), and light trucks today in the $3050,000 range, 9with many models exceeding those prices by 40%. Consumers will pay for vehicles that meet
32、their needs. The fuel cell vehicle has an energy use efficiency in the 80% range, whereas gasoline-powered vehicles have efficiencies in the 20% range. Combine this with the fact that a fuel cell powered vehicle is not only a zero emissions vehicle but also has higher power conversion efficiencies,
33、and the depen- dence on fossil fuels can be reduced and eventually eliminated by switching to fuel cell vehicles. 10Executive Summary Fuel cells have been around since 1842, when Sir William Grove first experimented with the technology. The progression of the technology in the marketplace has been s
34、talled for the last 160 years. In the 1960s, NASA adopted the use of fuel cells to power some of its early Gemini and Apollo spacecraft. General Motors produced the Electrovan in the mid- 1960s, but that vehicle never made it past the concept stage. For almost 40 years, fuel cells remained in the re
35、search labs. However, things recently are changing. It is hard to miss all the news that has been released about fuel cells for both stationary and transportation uses. During the past few years, several fuel cell powered concept vehicles have been developed. These have been shown to the public at t
36、he automotive shows and have participated in the California Fuel Cell Partnership (CFCP). Some fuel cell powered buses have been driving around both the United States and Europe, but the consumer has not been able to purchase a fuel cell powered vehicle. However, that may change in the next few year
37、s. Several automakers are planning to produce limited numbers of fuel cell vehicles. These vehicles will be leased in very small numbers in specific areas where hydrogen fuel can be obtained. Certain areas in California, the U.S.A, and Tokyo, Japan have the refueling facilities to meet the needs of
38、these vehicles. Toyota, Honda, and Nissan have stated that they will offer fuel cell powered vehicles by the end of 2003. DaimlerChrysler is scheduled to release a fleet of fuel cell vehicles in 2003 in Europe and the United States. Ford plans to produce a small number of fuel cell powered vehicles
39、in 2004. Other manufacturers such as Hyundai appear to be on the borderline as to when they will first sell or lease fuel cell vehicles. General Motors continues to report that it will not market a fuel cell powered vehicle until 2008 or 2010; however, market pressure may make GM react sooner. The a
40、utomotive industry reacts to consumer demand. If Honda, Toyota, Nissan, Ford, and DaimlerChrysler are successful in marketing their fuel cell 11 powered vehicles, it is doubtful that the remainder of the industry will hold to their original time frames. The good news is that after all these years, t
41、he road-worthy fuel cell powered vehicle finally may be available in 2003 2004. Consumer demand, the status of the world economy, fossil fuel sup- plies, and the worlds attitude toward clean, emissions-free air will dictate the success or failure of the fuel cell in the marketplace. Many challenges
42、exist in the commercialization of fuel cell powered vehicles. The one that is most commonly mentioned is the lack of a hydrogen fuel infrastructure. However, this was the same problem that occurred when, more than 100 years ago, the horseless carriage came into being. Gasoline stations popped up eve
43、rywhere because there was a demand. Hydrogen refueling stations will do the same when the demand is present. Many automakers are working on hydrogen-powered internal combustion engines that may bring hydrogen-refueling stations online in a shorter time frame. The cost of fuel cells also is stated as
44、 a hindrance. However, one must realize that all concept vehicles are expensive and thus are hand-made vehicles. Most people would not comprehend the cost of the one-of-a-kind vehicles shown at auto shows. When mass-production techniques are set up, the cost of produc- ing the parts and the total ve
45、hicle will be reduced. There is nothing in a fuel cell powered vehicle that cannot be mass-produced using current manufactur- ing technologies. At present, some items are produced by hand, one at a time, but that is because the demand for more units does not exist. Again, when items are produced in
46、small quantities, their prices generally are higher. Examine the cost of the low-production-number aircraft and spacecraft that are flying today. Experimental and one-of-a-kind vehicles are notoriously expensive. Fuel cell stacks are being improved and thus are undergoing their own development. Auto
47、makers are testing their fuel cell vehicles under all conditions to ensure that they can mass-produce a reliable and cost-effective vehicle. Fuel cell powered vehicles of all types, powered by various fuels (e.g., hydrogen, ethanol) have been undergoing testing under the California Fuel Cell Part- n
48、ership. Both cold-weather and hot-weather endurance testing have been conducted on fuel cell powered vehicles. Fuel cell powered vehicles have traversed the United States and are on tour in Europe. Challenges have been encountered, but engineers have dealt with the situations. 12 The biggest non-eng
49、ineering challenge to the future of fuel cell powered vehicles is acceptance by consumers. Electric vehicles offer the only current- day zero emissions vehicles. Fuel cell powered electric vehicles can offer the range, performance, and continuous operation that consumers expect from their vehicles. Fuel cell powered vehicles also reduce the dependence on fossil fuels. Major automakers have invested billions of dollars in the tech- nology; however, without consumer demand, fuel cell powered vehic
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