How to Calculate Your Grade.ppt

1、How to Calculate Your Grade,You have completed 500 out of 700 total points Add together: Lecture exam 1 Lecture exam 2 Lab exam 1 Lab exam 2 Average of your 7 best quizzes (drop lowest) Divide by 500REMEMBER: You must have at least a “C” = 68 in both lab and lecture separately to pass course,How to

2、Calculate the Number of points you need to pass,You need a total of 476 out of 700 points to get a C Take the total number of points you just calculated (the sum of 4 exams and quiz average) and subtract it from 476 The number you have is the total number of points you need If you divide that number

3、 by 2, you will see the approximate grade youll need on lab exam 3 and lecture exam 3. REMEMBER: the rules from previous page apply Have to have at least C in lecture and lab separately,Organs of the Abdomen,Systems: Urinary and Digestive,Urinary System,Kidneys Purify blood Ureters Drain urine from

4、kidney to bladder Urinary Bladder Store urine Urethra Drain urine from bladder to outside body,pg 5,Kidneys: major excretory organs,Remove toxins, metabolic waste, excess H2O, ions Urea, uric acid, creatinin Regulates volume + makeup of blood Maintains balance between Salts and water Acids and bases

5、,Kidneys: Gross Anatomy,Located superior lumbar region Posterior abdominal wall (T12-L3) Retroperitoneal Hilus Adrenal Gland: superomedial to kidney Renal Artery + Vein Innervation: branches of renal plexus,pg 648,Kidneys: Gross Anatomy,Renal Capsule Layer of tough CT Maintains shape Prevents spread

6、 of infection Adipose Capsule External to renal cap Perirenal fat Surrounded by fascia Keeps in place, cushions Pararenal Fat External to adipose cap Keeps in place, cushions,pg 649,Kidney: Internal Anatomy,Cortex Superficial Light, granular Part of functional unit Medulla Deep layer Darker Pyramid-

7、cone shape Contain collecting tubule collect urine,Pg 650,Kidney: Internal Anatomy,Medullary Pyramid Base: against cortex Apex: inward Papilla = tip Drips urine into minor calyx Minor Calyx (calices) Cup-shaped divisions of major calices Surround papilla of pyramid Major Calyx (calices) Larger cup-s

8、haped branches of renal pelvis Renal Pelvis Flat expansion of ureter Collects urine,Pg 650,Kidney: Microscopic Anatomy,Functional Unit Uriniferous Tubule Nephron Collecting tubule Waste is filtered out Waste products formed Located in lobes of kidneys,pg 652,Ureters,Slender tubes transport urine Run

9、 from kidneys to bladder Retroperitoneal Continuation of renal pelvis Enters bladder at oblique angle to prevent backflow Increased pressure in bladder closes distal end of ureter,pg 648,Ureters: 3 Layers,External: Adventitia CT Middle: Muscularis Smooth Muscle Inner Longitudinal Outer Circular Exte

10、rnal longitudinal (on distal third) Peristalsis Inner: Mucosa Transitional epithelium,Bladder,Muscular sac store and expel urine Location On pelvic floor Posterior Pubic symphysis Anterior Males = rectum Females = vagina, uterus Collapses + Expands Full into abdominal cav Emptystays in pelvic cav Su

11、pplied by branches of internal iliac arteries + veins Innervated = branches of hypogastric plexus,pg 648,Bladder: Internal Anatomy,3 Layers Mucosa = transitional epithelium & lamina propria Detrusor Muscle: smooth muscle Inner/Outer longitudinal, Middle circular Fibrous Adventitia = CT Parietal peri

12、toneum on superior surface instead,trigone,pg 662,Urethra,Drains urine from bladder to outside Female = short tube Males = long tube Prostatic, Membranous, Spongy (penile) portions Also carries semen Internal Urethral Sphincter Between bladder + urethra Thickening of detrusor (smooth muscle) Externa

13、l Urethral Sphincter Within urogenital diaphragm Skeletal muscle = voluntary control urination External Urethral Orifice Males = end of penile urethra Females = anterior to vaginal opening, posterior to clitoris,Urethra: Female vs. Male,pg 662,Micturition = Urination,Emptying bladder Stretch recepto

14、rs in bladder respond when bladder full Parasympathetic signals detrusor muscle to contract and internal urinary sphincter to open (also inhibits sympathetic pathways that would prevent urination) Other brain receptors can inhibit urination by relaxing detrusor, and keep external urinary sphincter c

15、losed Voluntary contraction of abdominal wall muscles increases abdominal pressure Voluntary relaxation of external urethral sphincter,See pg 663,Digestion System,Alimentary Canal Mouth Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Accessory Organs Teeth, Tongue Salivary Glands Gallbladd

16、er Liver Pancreas,pg 5,Food Processing Activities,Ingestion: taking food into mouth Propulsion: food moves through gut Swallowing + Peristalsis Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food Chewing, Churning, Segmentation Chemical Digestion: chemical breakdown Enzymes Absorption: Digestive end products in

17、to blood Defecation: Removal of waste products,Alimentary Canal Wall,Internal = Mucosa + Submucosa Epithelium Lamina propria: contains MALT: mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue Muscularis mucosae Submucosa = CT w/elastic fibers, nerves, vessels Middle = Muscularis Externa Inner circular layer Outer lo

18、ngitudinal layer Creates sphincters Outer = Serosa or Adventitia,Innervation of Alimentary Canal,2 Plexuses: Myenteric & Submucosal Parasympathetic, Sympathetic, Visceral Sensory fibers Enteric Nervous System 100 million neurons in walls of alimentary canal = internal system Within above plexuses In

19、dependent reflex arcs Controls glandular secretion, peristalsis, segmentation Autonomic Nervous System speeds up or slows activity controlled by enteric system,Stomach,“J” shape Cardiac Region Junction esophagus Cardiac sphincter (Gastroesophageal)Fundus (“dome”) Under diaphragm Body Large, middle p

20、art Pylorus Distal portion Pyloric sphincter Greater Curvature Lesser Curvature,Pg 624,Internal Anatomy of Stomach,Mucosa Rugae: mucosal folds allow expansion Many intrinsic glands Goblet cells Gastric glands Typical Submucosa Muscularis externa Oblique layer Circular layer Pyloric sphincter Longitu

21、dinal layer Serosa,pg 624,Function of Stomach,Temporary storage of chyme Breakdown begins Churn, segmentation Pepsin proteins Absorption H2O, electrolytes Alcohol, other drugs Stays about 4 hours Hold from1.5-4 liters,Small Intestine: Parts + Functions,Parts Duodenum = proximal (5%) Jejunum = middle

22、 (40%) Ileum = distal (55%) Majority of enzymatic digestion Bile: emulsifier (gallbladder, liver) Enzymes (pancreas) Almost all nutrient absorption Segmentation Moves chyme around to increase contact with intestine walls Food takes about 3-6 hours to move through 2.7- 6 meters,Small Intestine: Inter

23、nal Features,Intestinal flora: produce vitamin K Simple columnar epithelium w/many modifications for absorption Lymph tissue in submucosa Muscularis externa has 2 layers Some parasympathetic innervation from vagus Arterial supply: Superior mesenteric Rt (cranial) pancreaticoduodenal,Small Intestine:

24、 Modifications of epithelium for absorption,LengthIncrease surface area Plicae circularis Transverse ridges of mucosa Increase surface area Slow movement of chyme Villi Move chyme, increase contact Contain lacteals: remove fat Microvilli:Increase surface area Modifications decrease distally,pg 629,S

25、mall Intestine,Duodenum: short, straight Mostly retroperitoneal Jejunum & Ileum:highly coiled Fewer modifications Hang by mesentery in peritoneal cavity Mesentery Arcades Arteries + veins Nerves Store fat,Pg 614,Large Intestine,Cecum Vermiform appendix Colon Ascending Transverse Descending Sigmoid R

26、ectum Anal Canal,pg 631,Large Intestine,Functions: Absorb water and electrolytes Form, store and expel feces from body Internal Features: Intestinal flora No intestinal villi or modifications for absorption Many goblet cells Simple columnar epithelium except lower half of anal canal Significant Lymp

27、h tissue in mucosa & submucosa Muscularis mucosae has 2 layers Some parasympathetic innervation from vagus,Colon: External Features,Taeniae coli 3 longitudinal strips thickening of longitudinal muscle maintain muscle tone create haustra Haustra saclike divisions Epiploic Appendages fat-filled pouche

28、s significance unknown,pg 631,Cecum + Vermiform Appendix,Cecum sac-like, blind pouch Ileocecal valve raised edges of mucosa prevents feces going back into ileum Vermiform Appendix same layers blind tube opens into cecum masses of lymph tissue,pg 631,Colon,Ascending colon Right side Hepatic flexure (

29、= right colic flexure) Transverse colon Across cavity Descending colon Left side Splenic flexure (= left colic flexure ) Sigmoid colon Enters pelvis “S” shape,pg 631,Colon: Function,Absorb H2O and electrolytes Some digestion by bacteria Mass Peristaltic Movements (2-3x day) Moves through in 12-24 ho

30、urs 1.5 meters,Rectum + Anal Canal,Rectum descends into pelvis no teniae coli longitudinal muscle layer complete rectal valves Anal Canal passes through levator ani muscle releases mucus to lubricate feces Internal anal sphincter involuntary, smooth m. External anal sphincter voluntary, skeletal m.

31、Stratified squamosal epithelium at lower half,pg 632,Defecation Reflex,Stretching of rectum wall initiates reflex Spinal cord - parasympathetic signals sigmoid colon + rectum to contract + anal sphincter to relax (involuntary) If not ready-reflex ends- rectum relaxes Reflex initiated again until you

32、 go! Contraction of abdominal muscles, levator ani + diaphragm assists defecation (voluntary),Liver,Largest gland (3 lbs) Location Upper Right Quadrant Mostly under ribcage Highly vascular Some functions produce bile pick up glucose detoxify poison, drugs make blood proteins many others,pg 610,pg 63

33、5,Liver: External Features,pg 635,Diaphragmatic surface Right lobe (larger) Left lobe Falciform ligament Fissure betweenVisceral surface Quadrate lobe Caudate lobe Both part of left lobe,Liver: Visceral Surface,Hepatic Vein (into inferior vena cava) Porta Hepatis Hepatic Artery (from abdominal aorta

34、 ) Hepatic Portal Vein Carries nutrient-rich blood from stomach + intestines to liver Portal system = 2 capillary beds! Hepatic Ducts (carry bile),pg 636,Gallbladder,Muscular sac Between right + quadrate liver lobes Bile is stored + concentrated Bile: breaks down fats = emulsification Bile Produced

35、by liver Stored in gallbladder,pg 610,Gallbladder continued,Mucosa & lamina propria Simple columnar epithelium Expandable mucosal folds Smooth muscle layer Thick connective tissue Covered by serosa in places,Bile Ducts,Cystic duct carries bile from gallbladder Hepatic duct carries bile from liver Co

36、mmon Bile duct joins cystic and hepatic carries bile into duodenum,pg 628,Movement of Bile,Bile secreted by liver continuously Hepatopancreatic (Vater) ampulla common bile + main pancreatic duct meet and enter duodenum Sphincter of Oddi around it closed when bile not needed for digestion Bile then b

37、acks up into gallbladder via cystic duct When needed gallbladder contracts, sphincters open,pg 628,Pancreas,Retroperitoneal Gland Exocrine digestive enzymes Endocrine hormone insulin hormone glucagon Location curve of duodenum extends to spleen,pg 639,Ducts of Pancreas,Main Pancreatic duct joins com

38、mon bile duct enters duodenum Hepatopancreatic (Vater) ampulla Accessory Pancreatic duct enters duodenum in other location,pg 628,Spleen,Largest lymph organ Highly vascular Function remove blood-borne antigens (immune) remove and destroy old/damaged blood cells stores blood platelets In fetus: site

39、of hematopoiesis,pg 639,Arterial Blood Supply to Abdominal Viscera,All branches of Abdominal Aorta Anastomoses Left + Middle colic Left + Right gastric Left + Right gastroepiploic Cranial + Caudal pancreaticoduodenal Deep Iliac Circumflex + Adrenolumbar STUDY HAND OUT! MUST KNOW WHAT SUPPLIES WHAT!,Names give hints!,Hepato = liver Pancreatico = pancreas Cystic = gallbladder Gastro = stomach Splenic = spleen Adreno = adrenal gl Lumbar = lumbar region,Epiploic = membrane-covered Mesenteric = mesentery Duodenal = duodenum Ileo = ileum Colic = colon Rectal = rectum,