1、 STD*API/PETRO PUBL 4675-ENGL 1979 m 07322711 0626357 375 BII American Petroleum Institute American Petroleum Institute Environmental, Health, and Safety Mission and Guiding Principles MISSION The members of the American Petroleum Institute are dedicated to continuous eflorts to improve the compatib
2、ility of our operations with the environment while economically developing energy resources and supplying high quality products and services to consumers. We recognize our responsibility to work with the public, the government, and others to develop and to use natural resources in an environmentally
3、 sound manner while protecting the health and safety of our employees and the public. To meet these responsibilities, MI members pledge to manage our businesses according to the following principles using souna science to prioritize risks and to implement cost-effective management practices: PRINCIP
4、LES To recognize and to respond to community concerns about our raw materials, products and operations. To operate our plants and facilities, and to handle our raw materials and products in a manner that protects the environment, and the safety and health of our employees and the public. To make saf
5、ety, health and environmental considerations a priority in our planning, and our development of new products and processes. To advise promptly, appropriate officials, employees, customers and the public of information on significant industry-related safety, health and environmental hazards, and to r
6、ecommend protective measures. O To counsel customers, transporters and others in the safe use, transportation and disposal of our raw materials, products and waste materials. To economically develop and produce natural resources and to conserve those resources by using energy efficiently. To extend
7、knowledge by conducting or supporting research on the safety, health and environmental effects of our raw materials, products, processes and waste materials. To commit to reduce overall emission and waste generation. To work with others to resolve problems created by handling and disposal of hazardo
8、us substances from our operations. To participate with government and others in creating responsible laws, regulations and standards to safeguard the community, workplace and environment. To promote these principles and practices by sharing experiences and offering assistance to others who produce,
9、handle, use, transport or dispose of similar raw materials, petroleum products and wastes. I STD.API/PETRO PUEL 4675-ENGL L999 E 0732230 0626358 221 m Fate and Environmental Effects of Oil Spills in Freshwater Environments Regulatory and Scientific Affairs API PUBLICATION NUMBER 4675 EDITED BY: DAVI
10、D STALFORT, U.S. COAST GUARD DECEMBER 1999 American Petroleum Institute FOREWORD API PUBLICATIONS NECESSARILY ADDRESS PROBLEMS OF A GENERAL NATURE. WITH RESPECT TO PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES, LOCAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL LAWS AND REGULATIONS SHOULD BE REVIEWED. API IS NOT UNDERTAKING TO MEET THE DUTIES O
11、F EMPLOYERS, MANUFAC- TURERS, OR SUPPLIERS TO WARN AND PROPERLY TRAIN AND EQUIP THEIR EMPLOYEES, AND OTHERS EXPOSED, CONCERNING HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS AND PRECAUTIONS, NOR UNDERTAKING THEIR OBLIGATIONS UNDER LOCAL, STATE, OR FEDERAL LAWS. NOTHING CONTAINED IN ANY API PUBLICATION IS TO BE CONSTRUED
12、AS GRANTING ANY RIGHT, BY IMPLICATION OR OTHERWISE, FOR THE MANU- FACTURE, SALE, OR USE OF ANY METHOD, APPARATUS, OR PRODUCT COV- ERED BY LETTERS PATENT. NEITHER SHOULD ANYTHING CONTAINED IN THE PUBLICATION BE CONSTRUED AS INSURING ANYONE AGAINST LIABIL- ITY FOR INFRINGEMENT OF LETTERS PATENT. All r
13、ights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the pubi.yhel: COntQCl the publisher, API Publishing Services. I220 L Street, N.W Wa
14、shington, D.C. 20005. Copyright O 1999 American Petroleum Institute THE FOLLOWING PEOPLE ARE RECOGNIZED FOR THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS OF TIME AND EXPERTISE DURING THIS STUDY AND IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS REPORT: API STAFF CONTACT Alexis Steen, Regulatory and Scientific Affairs MEMBERS OF THE OIL SPILLS S
15、CIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY WORK GROUP David Fritz, Chairperson, BP Amoco Dan Allen, Chevron North America E e discusses the chemical characteristics of oils and the fate processes that are dependent thereon; and 0 summarizes reported results of ecological and toxicological effects both generally and with
16、 specific references to distinct organism groupings. This research effort was sponsored by the American Petroleum Institute (API) to provide technical information for persons responsible for inland spill response and cleanup, for researchers, and for others dealing with protection of the environment
17、 from possible oil spill hazards. API recognized a need to compile information on oil solubility, biodegradation, transport phenomena, sediment interactions, bioavailable fractions, bioconcentration potential, toxicity, and organism behavioral effects to facilitate the selection of spill responses t
18、hat minimize environmental damage and optimize effectiveness. Information sources included case histories, field research projects, and laboratory experiments. The authors performed a systematic survey of published literature using keyword searches of several commercially available abstract database
19、s. Additional literature was obtained directly from numerous researchers in the field. Prior reviews and syntheses of oil spill fate and effects information are identified throughout the document. Information specific to the marine environment was borrowed only where applicable or where freshwater i
20、nformation was not available. ES-1 Significant findings of this review include the following: Inland water habitats susceptible to oil spill effects were categorized as follows: open water, large rivers, small lakes and ponds, small rivers and streams, bedrock, manmade structures, sand, mixed sand a
21、nd gravel, gravel, vegetated shorelines, mud, and wetlands. The respective sensitivities of these habitats to oil spill impact depend on substrate permeability, the extent of physical removal rates by currents, and the extent of use by animal and plant communities. Mud and wetland habitats tend to b
22、e most sensitive to oiling, and open waters, large rivers, and sand habitats least sensitive. Unfortunately, the ease of oil removal tends to be inversely proportional to habitat sensitivity. m Processes affecting the fate and behavior of spilled oil in inland waters include spreading and drift, emu
23、lsification and dispersion, evaporation, dissolution, sorption/sedimentation/ sinking, photodegradation, and biodegradation. The rate at which each of these occurs will be regulated both by prevailing environmental conditions and by the chemical makeup of the spilled product. In general, lighter mol
24、ecular weight constituents and lighter, more refined, products will be more susceptible to the fate processes listed. Although the lighter oils remain in the environment for a shorter time, they tend to be more toxic to aquatic species than the heavier oils. Spilled oil products will affect freshwat
25、er organisms both directly, as a result of physical and toxicological processes, and indirectly, as a result of habitat impacts, nutrient cycling disruptions, and alterations in community and trophic relationships. An oils toxicity is primarily a function of the solubility of its components in water
26、. Toxicity should be predictable from an oils composition and that of its water soluble fraction (WSF), especially its aromatic content. It is a generally accepted conclusion that the higher an oils concentrations of polyalkylated mono- and diaromatic constituents, the more toxic the oil. Thus refin
27、ed petroleum products and lighter oils tend to be more toxic than heavier crudes and weathered products. Immediately following an oil spill, effects on aquatic plants and animals tend to be due to the physical coating or entrapment of exposed organisms. Membrane damage, respiratory blockage, loss of
28、 insulation and buoyancy, smothering of sediments, and disrupted swimming and feeding behaviors each may contribute to the initial loss of organisms from within a spill zone. Additional toxic effects may occur as a result of the dissolution of oil constituents in water, and numerous laboratory studi
29、es describe the toxic responses of organisms to oil exposure. However, post-spill field observations suggest that the toxicological effects of spilled oil tend to be less extensive than the physical ones. The extent of direct physical exposure of organisms to spilled, undissolved product seems to be
30、 the primary determinant of organism effects. The greater the probability that a plant or animal will directly encounter spilled product before the oil has had a chance to weather or dissipate, the greater the chance that organism will be adversely affected by the spill. ES-2 STD-API/PETRO PUBL 4675
31、-ENGL 1999 I 0732290 0626367 234 111 0 Secondary effects of oil spills can also have dramatic impacts on ecological communities, including alterations in nutrient cycling, reductions in dissolved oxygen concentrations, decreases in species diversity, loss of habitat, and disruptions of trophic relat
32、ionships. Each effect may produce adverse consequences to ecosystems exposed to spilled oil. Based on this review, five areas for future research on freshwater spills were identified. They are: 0 Testing of WSF toxicity and method standardization; 0 Weathered oil and ultraviolet(Uv)-enhanced polyaro
33、matic hydrocarbon (PAH) toxicity; 0 Long term fate and effects of oil in sediments; 0 Sensitivity of plants to oiling and their resiliency to cutting; and 0 Toxicological and physical effects from oil exposure to amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. Greater documentation is needed regarding inland oil
34、 spill ecological investigations and response case histories to facilitate efficient and effective response efforts in the future. Ecological pragmatism and response experience may be nearly as important as technical expertise in formulating and implementing a successful spill response. In reality,
35、economic and political considerations will often predominate over ecological ones in formulating spill response strategies. The combination of these considerations will usually mean that some type of response is mandated in nearly every spill situation. By being aware of basic technical information
36、regarding the fate and effects of spilled oil in inland waters, spill responders should better be able to determine appropriate response strategy under any scenario. ES-3 STD*API/PETRO PUBL 4675-ENGL 1959 W 0732290 Ob2b368 L70 m Section 1 INTRODUCTION BACKGROUND OF THE REVIEW Numerous studies have i
37、nvestigated the fate of oil spilled into aquatic systems and have documented potential adverse effects. However, these studies have focused primarily on marine systems. This report reviews the fate and effects of spilled petroleum products into inland or freshwater environments. It focuses on ecolog
38、ical effects and toxicity to aquatic and wildlife species only. The report seeks to combine the knowledge gained from laboratory research and field observations to enhance the overall understanding of spilled oils behavior in the freshwater environment. The American Petroleum Institute (API) has foc
39、used several projects on issues related to freshwater oil spills, including: reviews of natural resource damage assessments (API, 1992a,b), a review of the impact on the environment of cleanup practices (Vandermeulen and Ross, 1991), a workshop and a subsequent manual on the environmental effects of
40、 response technologies for inland waters (API, 1995a), and an annotated bibliography in electronic file format of oil spills into inland waters from 1946-1993 (API, 1997). The effects of oil spilled in freshwater have been considered in previous reviews including: Vandermeulen and Hrudey (1987), Gre
41、en and Trett (1989), API (1992a), and API (1992b,c). These documents comprise topic-specific articles on oil in the environment (Vandermeulen and Hrudey, 1987), bibliographic lists (API, 1992a), comprehensive discussions of the fate and behavior of oil and toxicity of both hydrocarbons and oil (Gree
42、n and Trett, 1989), and reviews of assessed damages from oil spills into inland waters (API, 1992b,c). Because most catastrophic spills due to transportation of crude oil and refined products have been largely over open seas or along ocean coasts, the perception of environmental risk has traditional
43、ly focused on marine and brackish aquatic habitats. Comparatively less attention has been directed toward the potential problems of contamination of inland waterways. However, many ports are located in or near freshwater. Furthermore, the transportation of petroleum 1-1 STD-APIIPETRO PUBL 4b75-ENGL
44、L999 m 0732290 Ob2b3b9 007 PII products is not confined to seagoing vessels, but is often accomplished by inland barges, pipelines, railways, and highways. Accidents involving inland transport can result in significant releases of crude oil or petroleum products into freshwater systems. The Ashland
45、oil spill into the Monongahela River in 1988 demonstrated that freshwater oil spills can be as dramatic and as difficult to control as marine or coastal spills. Nearly 4 million gallons of No. 2 diesel fuel were released from a collapsing storage tank. An estimated 750,000 gallons entered the Monong
46、ahela River, moved past Pittsburgh, and into the Ohio River, forcing several drinking water plants to close their intakes. Although the processes affecting the fate of petroleum products do not differ substantially between marine and freshwater systems, the behavioral dynamics can be quite distinct.
47、 The sheer volume of the marine system and the influence of tides and currents mean that spilled oil will distribute and persist much differently in the worlds oceans than in its freshwater lakes, rivers, wetlands, creeks, and ponds. Evaporation, biodegradation, photooxidation, emulsification, and d
48、issolution occur in fresh and marine systems according to the same chemical and physical processes. However, the rates at, and the degrees to, which they occur can vary dramatically. For that matter, they can deviate significantly among different types of freshwater habitats. Oil will persist, dispe
49、rse, and degrade at different rates in rivers and lakes. Biodegradation will proceed much faster in an eutrophic (nutrient rich) temperate wetland than an oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) arctic pond or river. Likewise, the types of ecological effects to be expected following an inland spill, as opposed to a marine spill, can be substantially different. While threats to migrating fish stocks or aquatic mammals may be primary concerns following an ocean spill, adverse effects to benthic insects, reptiles, waterfowl, or shoreline vegetation may be the focus of a
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