1、Book Three of the Vocational Training Series Third Edition, October 1995 American Petroleum Institute and al artment American Petroleum Institute SPECIAL NOTES 1. API PUBLICATIONS NECESSARILY ADDRESS PROBLEMS OF A GENERAL NATURE. WITH RESPECT TO PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES, LOCAL, STATE, AND FEDERAL LA
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8、ns Manager,1220 L Street, N.W.,Washington, DC 20005. Copyright 0 1995 American Petroleum Institute API TITLE*VT-3 95 0732290 0549373 532 FOREWORD The underground injection of water, whether into waterfloods or disposal systems, is an integral portion of the cost of producing oil. The magnitude of th
9、is cost has increased because more water is being produced as: m More reservoirs are nearing completion. m Wells are being produced to higher water-cut due to the demand for oil. m Many older waterfloods are being expanded and new ones started in order to recover once marginal reserves. The expense
10、of injecting larger volumes of produced water is further compounded by the rapid rise in the cost of energy needed to inject this water and the increasingly higher costs of measures needed to protect the environment. The objective of this manual is to provide information for field operating personne
11、l on the systems, methods and practices to most economically operate an underground injection program while maintaining the schedules and volumes required. The manual is written to help the overseer of the system solve many of the problems associated with underground water injection. Its intent is t
12、o provide the reader with information regarding the following: a. Suitable design of the injection system including wells, lines and surface facilities. b. Regulations and other restrictions related to subsurface water injection. c. Measures to be taken to protect life, property and the public inter
13、est. d. Factors which affect injection cost. The material in this manual is of a basic, cursory, and introductory nature. The reader should consult-technical experts for more detailed information on specific items of interest. iii CONTENTS Page 1.1 Introduction . 1 1.2 Reference Publications 1 1.3 D
14、isposal Versus Enhanced Recovery 1 1.4 Components of an Injection System 2 1.4.1 Gathering System . 2 1.4.2 Water Treatment Facilities 2 1.4.3 Injection Facilities 2 1.5 Environmental Concerns . 2 1.5.1 Underground Injection Control (UIC) 3 1.5.2 Air Pollution Concerns . 4 1.5.3 Waste Management-Haz
15、ardous Materials . 4 1.5.4 Spills . 4 1.5.5 Hazardous Chemicals Inventory . 4 1.5.7 Other Environmental Concerns 5 1.6.1 Chemical Exposure . 5 1.6.2 Chemicals at Injection Facilities 5 1.6.3 Other Chemicals . 6 1.6.4 Asbestos . 6 1.6.5 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) . 6 1.6.6 Physic
16、al Hazards 6 1.6.7 Noise . 7 1.6.8 Confined Spaces 7 1.6.9 Electrical Hazards . 7 1.6.10 Fires and Explosions . 7 1.6.11 Construction Hazards . 7 1.7 Summary . 7 SECTION 1-INTRODUCTION TO SALTWAER INJECTION 1.5.6 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) . 5 1.6 Health and Safety Concerns 5 CH
17、APTER 2-THE GATHERING SYSTEM 2.1 Introduction . 7 2.2 Initial OiliWater Separation . 7 2.3 Pipeline Design . 8 2.3.1 Design Considerations 8 2.3.2 Gravity Flow and Pumping Techniques . 9 2.3.3 Pipeline Size . 9 2.3.4 Pipeline Vents . 9 2.3.5 Types of Pipe Used in Gathering Systems 9 2.3.6 Connection
18、s 10 2.3.7 Pump Selection . 10 2.3.8 Water Meters . 11 2.3.9 Inspection and Sampling 11 2.4 Installation of Pipelines . 11 2.4.1 Pipe Ditches 12 2.4.2 Snaking Pipes . 12 2.4.3 Road Crossings . 12 2.5 Pipeline Inspection and Maintenance 12 CHAPTER 3-WATER TREATMENT FACILITIES 3.1 Introduction . 14 V
19、API TITLExVT-3 95 m 0732290 0549373 395 3.2 Oil Removal 14 3.2.2 Heater Treater and Electrical Chemical Treater . 14 3.3 Solids Removal . 15 3.2.1 Gravity Segregation Vessel . 14 3.2.3 Skim Tanks and Coalescers 15 3.3.1 Coagulation and Sedimentation 15 3.3.2 Filtration . 15 3.3.3 Filter Types . 15 3
20、.3.6 Filter Failure . 17 3.4.1 Scales 18 3.4.4 Field Sample Collection . 19 3.3.4 Water Characteristics 17 3.3.5 Backwashing . 17 3.4 Scales and Other Precipitates 17 3.4.2 Preventing or Removing Scales and Other Deposits 18 3.4.3 Sampling Water-Formed Deposits 19 3.5 Bacteria 19 3.5.1 Aerobic Bacte
21、ria . 19 3.5.2 Anaerobic Bacteria . 19 3.5.4 Prevention . 20 3.5.3 Anaerobic Sulfate-Reducing Bacteria 19 CHAPTER +INJECTION FACILITIES 4.1 Introduction . 20 4.2 Prediction of Volume and Rate of Water Production For Disposal . 20 4.2.1 Active Water Drive . 21 4.2.3 Maximum Future Water Production Ra
22、te . 21 4.2.4 Future Water Production Curve 21 4.3 Disposal Formation . 21 4.3.1 Permeability and Thickness 22 4.2.2 Limited Water Drive . 21 4.3.2 Areal Extent 22 4.3.3 Pressure . 22 4.4 Locating Wells . 22 4.5 Selection of Wells For Injection 23 4.5.1 The Newly Drilled Hole . 23 4.5.2 Conversion o
23、f an Existing Well 23 4.6 Drilling and Completion 23 4.6.1 Methods of Completion 23 4.6.2 Access to the Objective Formation . 24 4.6.3 Liners 24 4.6.4 Adequate Hole Diameter 25 4.6.6 Surface Casing 25 4.6.5 Containment of Injected Fluids to Target Formation . 25 4.6.7 The Long String 25 4.6.8 Protec
24、tion Against Corrosion . 25 4.7 Equipping The Well For Injection . 26 4.7.1 Tubing . 26 4.7.2 Designing the Tubing String . 26 4.7.3 Packers 26 4.7.4 Annular Inhibition 26 4.7.5 Wellheads 26 4.7.6 Wellhead Meters . 27 4.8 Injection Pumps . 27 API TITLE*VT-3 75 m 0732290 0547374 221 m 4.8.1 Saltwater
25、 Service 28 4.8.2 Injection Stations 28 4.8.4 Pump Drives . 30 4.9.1 Rate Testing Disposal Wells . 30 4.9.2 Rate Selection for Enhanced Recovery 30 4.10.1 General . 31 4.10.2 Stimulating . 31 4.12 Well Plugging 33 CHAPTER 5-ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS OF SALTWATER 5.1 Introduction . 33 5.3 Value of Salt
26、 Water 34 5.3.2 Effect of Disposal on Economic Limit . 34 5.4 Organizational Procedures For Handling Salt Water Disposal . 34 5.4.1 Disposal by Others for a Fee 34 5.4.2 Disposal into an Operators Own System . 35 5.4.3 Association Disposal System . 35 5.4.4 Joint Interest Disposal System 35 5.5 Reco
27、rds 35 5.5.1 Disposal Volumes and Pressures 35 5.5.2 Remedial Well Work . 36 5.5.3 Repairs to Injection System 36 5.5.4 Waster Disposal 36 APPENDIX A-GLOSSARY 37 4.8.3 Hook-up Considerations . 28 4.9 Putting The Well Into Service . 30 4.10 Well Maintenance 31 4.1 1 Recordkeeping . 32 INJECTION OPERA
28、TIONS 5.2 Disposal Costs For Salt Water . 34 5.3.1 General . 34 APPENDIX B-BIBLIOGRAPHY . 43 INDEX . 45 Figures 1-Fiberglass Saltwater Handling Tank . 8 2-Transfer Pump and Back-up Pump 8 3-Fiberglass Tank and Transfer Pump . 9 with disposal, however, whatever water is produced must be managed. Inje
29、ction volume in a disposal well is limited only by permit condition or the injec- tivity of the well. In enhanced recovery projects, the formation and its prop- erties are already known from production history. For disposal, this is not always true. It may be necessary to select the best formation f
30、rom information that must be gathered. Enhanced recovery systems generally require much longer surface lines to distribute the water to the injection wells than those for a disposal system. Installation and operation of a saltwater system are expen- sive. Careful planning is mandatory before beginni
31、ng construction to allow time for the following: a. Designing the system. b. Notifying the offset operator. c. Planning safety, environmental and health considerations. d. Selecting materials and equipment. e. Securing required environmental and operational permits. f. Scheduling possible hearings b
32、efore state and federal regulatory bodies. 1.4 Components of an Injection System Whether for enhanced recovery or disposal, the basic components of the injection system are the same. These include the following: a. A gathering system to move the salt water from each tank battery or watersource well
33、to the treating and injection facil- ities. b. Water treatment facilities to remove oil or other impuri- ties that might impact the system or the injection formation. c. Injection facilities, including storage tanks, pumps, piping, and the well itself. This section provides a brief overview of the v
34、arious system components, some initial planning considerations, and a discussion of environmental, health and safety concerns associated with injection well facilities. 1.4.1 GATHERING SYSTEM The gathering system is a network of pipelines that moves salt water from the tank battery or watersource we
35、ll to a collection center or treating plant. Where possible, gravity flow is utilized, however, pumping is usually required. The following must be considered for the gathering system: a. Pipe and pump sizes and types. b. Installation of the pipelines. c. Collection center equipment. d. Metering equi
36、pment. e. Inspection and maintenance of the system. Additional information on the gathering system is provided in Section 2. 1.4.2 WATER TREATMENT FACILITIES Although preliminary separation of salt water from other components (oil, solids, and the like) begins at the tank battery, additional treatme
37、nt is often required prior to injec- tion to protect the surface facilities, the well, and/or the formation. Additionally, further product recovery can occur. Various types of treatment may be necessary, depending upon the types of contaminants to be removed. Some of the most common include the foll
38、owing: a. Skimmers or coalescers to remove oil. b. Filters to remove solids. c. Chemical treatment to remove or control scales and sludges, or kill bacteria. d. Stripping to remove oxygen. It is necessary to determine which types of treatment might be required so that proper facilities can be planne
39、d and designed. This may require sampling the water or deposits. The saltwater contaminants and the treatment methods are discussed further in Section 3. 1.4.3 INJECTION FACILITIES Once the salt water has been moved to the central facility and treated, it is ready for injection. Pumps are used to mo
40、ve the salt water down the well and into the injection formation. Equipment should be selected that is resistant to corrosion, and sized properly to ensure optimum injection rates and pressures. Additional information on the injection facilities can be found in Section 4. 1.5 Environmental Concerns
41、As with other oil and gas operations, protection of the environment is a primary concern when managing produced water, especially that which is saline. D All injection activity must be designed, operated, moni- tored, maintained, and plugged and abandoned to prevent produced fluid from moving into o
42、r between underground sources of drinking water (USDWs). Monitoring and mechanical integrity testing will help to demonstrate that there is no unwanted fluid movement. m The surface equipment-pipes, pumps, storage tanks, and the like-also should be designed to prevent leaks or spills of the material
43、s they hold, and to minimize emissions to the air. D Proper management includes routine well inspection and repair, monitoring, and cleanup. - API TITLEIVT-3 95 m 0732290 0549377 T30 m Subsurface Saltwater Injection and Disposa2 3 m In emergency situations, such as breakdown of disposal facilities,
44、temporary storage of salt water in lined surface pits may be allowed. However, applicable regulatory agencies should be consulted before constructing such emergency facilities. Tanks are the preferred means of providing emer- gency storage. m It should be stressed that failure to comply with appro-
45、priate regulations for salt water disposal or injection can result in fines and orders to cease production entirely, until the operation is in regulatory compliance. This section provides an overview of some of the environ- mental regulations that impact saltwater injection. In general the following
46、 should be considered: m Governmental regulatory requirements must be met by the operator for drilling, completion, and operation of injec- tion or disposal wells; m These regulations include such topics as spill response and reporting, waste disposal, hazardous chemicals inven- tory, and the protec
47、tion of drinking or potable water; and m The operator must be acquainted with the regulations of all governing bodies having jurisdiction over the injection system and operate within the framework of government regulations. Some of the regulatory bodies that could have jurisdiction are the following
48、 agencies and departments: a. Department of Interior (DOI), including: l. Bureau of Fish and Wildlife (BFW). 2. Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). 3. Bureau of Land Management (BLM). 4. U.S. Geological Survey (USGS). b. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). c. Municipalities. d. Occupational Safety an
49、d Health Administration (OSHA). e. State Boards of Health. f. State Highway Departments. g. State Parks and Wildlife Departments. h. State Oil and Gas Commissions. i. State Water Districts. j. State Water Quality Boards. k. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (US ACE). An injection well or disposal well with the desirable char- acteristics outlined in this section should have little trouble meeting the requirements of these regulatory bodies. 1.5.1 UNDERGROUND INJECTION CONTROL WC) Salt water can be very damaging to soil and ground water environments if not managed correctly. All surface facilit
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