1、Designation: E 2278 04Standard Guide forUse of Coal Combustion Products (CCPs) for Surface MineReclamation: Revegetation and Mitigation of Acid MineDrainage1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E 2278; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adop
2、tion or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide covers the beneficial use of coal combustionproducts (CCPs)
3、for abatement of acid mine drainage andrevegetation for surface mine reclamation applications relatedto area mining, contour mining, and mountaintop removalmining. It does not apply to underground mine reclamationapplications. There are many important differences in physicaland chemical characterist
4、ics that exist among the various typesof CCPs available for use in mine reclamation. CCPs proposedfor each project must be investigated thoroughly to design CCPplacement activities to meet the project objectives. This guideprovides procedures for consideration of engineering, eco-nomic, and environm
5、ental factors in the development of suchapplications.1.2 The utilization of CCPs under this guide is a componentof a pollution prevention program; Guide E 1609 describespollution prevention activities in more detail. Utilization ofCCPs in this manner conserves land, natural resources, andenergy.1.3
6、This guide applies to CCPs produced primarily from thecombustion of coal.1.4 The testing, engineering, and construction practices forusing CCPs in mine reclamation are similar to generallyaccepted practices for using other materials, including cementand soils, in mine reclamation.1.5 Regulations gov
7、erning the use of CCPs vary by state.The user of this guide has the responsibility to determine andcomply with applicable regulations.1.6 The values stated in inch-pound units are to be regardedas the standard. The SI units given in parentheses are forinformation only.1.7 This standard does not purp
8、ort to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory requirements prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2C
9、188 Test Method for Density of Hydraulic CementC 311 Test Methods for Sampling and Testing Fly Ash orNatural Pozzolans for Use as a Mineral Admixture inPortland-Cement ConcreteC 400 Test Methods for Quicklime and Hydrated Lime forNeutralization of Waste AcidD 75 Practice for Sampling AggregatesD 420
10、 Guide to Site Characterization for Engineering, De-sign, and Construction PurposesD 422 Test Method for Particle-Size Analysis of SoilsD 653 Terminology Relating to Soil, Rock, and ContainedFluidsD 698 Test Method for Laboratory Compaction Character-istics of Soil Using Standard Effort (12 400 ft-l
11、bf/ft3(600kN-m/m3)D 854 Test Method for Specific Gravity of SoilsD 1195 Test Method for Repetitive Static Plate Load Testsof Soils and Flexible Pavement Components, for Use inEvaluation and Design of Airport and Highway PavementsD 1452 Practice for Soil Investigation and Sampling byAuger BoringsD 15
12、57 Test Methods for Laboratory Compaction Charac-teristics of Soil Using Modified Effort (56 000 ft-lbf/ft3(2700 kN-m/m3)D 1586 Test Method for Penetration Test and Split-BarrelSampling of SoilsD 1883 Test Method for CBR (California Bearing Ratio) ofLaboratory-Compacted SoilsD 2166 Test Method for U
13、nconfined Compressive Strengthof Cohesive SoilD 2216 Test Method for Laboratory Determination of Water(Moisture) Content of Soil and RockD 2435 Test Method for One-Dimensional ConsolidationProperties of Soils1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E50 on EnvironmentalAssessment and i
14、s the direct responsibility of Subcommittee E50.03 on PollutionPrevention, Reuse, Recycling, and Environmental Efficiency.Current edition approved May 1, 2004. Published June 2004.2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org
15、. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.D 3080 Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils UnderConsolidate
16、d Drained ConditionsD 3550 Practice for Ring-Lined Barrel Sampling of SoilsD 3877 Test Methods for One-Dimensional Expansion,Shrinkage, and Uplift Pressure of Soil-Lime MixturesD 3987 Test Method for Shake Extraction of Solid Wastewith WaterD 4253 Test Methods for Maximum Index Density and UnitWeigh
17、t of Soils Using a Vibratory TableD 4254 Test Method for Minimum Index Density and UnitWeight of Soils and Calculation of Relative DensityD 4448 Guide for Sampling Ground Water MonitoringWellsD 4767 Test Method for Consolidated-Undrained TriaxialCompression Test on Cohesive SoilsD 4972 Test Method f
18、or pH of SoilsD 5084 Test Method for Measurement of Hydraulic Con-ductivity of Saturated Porous Materials Using a FlexibleWall PermeameterD 5092 Practice for Design and Installation of GroundWater Monitoring Wells in AquifersD 5239 Practice for Characterizing Fly Ash for Use in SoilStabilizationD 57
19、59 Guide for Characterization of Coal Fly Ash andClean Coal Combustion Fly Ash for Potential UsesD 5851 Guide for Planning and Implementing a WaterMonitoring ProgramE 1527 Practice for Environmental Site Assessments: Phase1 Environmental Site Assessment ProcessE 1609 Guide for the Development and Im
20、plementation of aPollution Prevention ProgramE 2201 Terminology for Coal Combustion Products2.2 Other Methods:EPA Method 1312 Synthetic Precipitation Leaching Proce-dure (SPLP)(1)3EPA Method 1320 Multiple Extraction Procedure (MEP)(2)EPA Method Monofill Waste Extraction Procedure(MWEP)(3)Synthetic G
21、round Water Leaching Procedure (SGLP)(4)Long-Term Leaching Procedure (LTL)(4)3. Terminology3.1 DefinitionsFor definitions related to coal combustionproducts, see Terminology E 2201. For definitions related togeotechnical properties see Terminology D 653.3.2 Definitions of Terms Specific to This Stan
22、dard:3.2.1 acid-forming materialsearth materials that containsulfide mineral or other materials, which, if exposed to air,water, or weathering processes, will produce acids that mayresult in acid drainage.3.2.2 basicity factora measure of alkalinity which can beused for comparing relative neutraliza
23、tion power of materials.It is determined as grams of calcium oxide equivalents perkilogram of material.3.2.3 bencha ledge, shelf or terrace formed in the contourmethod of strip mining or formed in surface operations ofunderground coal mining.3.2.4 disturbed areathose lands that have been affectedby
24、surface mining and reclamation operations, or by surfaceoperations of underground coal mining.3.2.5 final gradethe finished elevation of any surfacedisturbance prior to replacement of topsoil.3.2.6 internal erosionpiping; the progressive removal ofsoil particles from a mass by percolating water, lea
25、ding to thedevelopment of channels.3.2.7 overburdenall of the earth and other materials,excluding topsoil, which lie above a natural deposit of coal andalso means such earth and other material after removal fromtheir natural state in the process of strip mining.3.2.8 permeability, nthe capacity to c
26、onduct liquid or gas.It is measured as the proportionality constant, k, between flowvelocity, v, and hydraulic gradient, i; v = ki.3.2.9 productivitythe vegetative yield produced by a unitarea for a unit of time.3.2.10 recharge capacitythe ability of the soils and un-derlying materials to allow prec
27、ipitation and run-off to infiltrateand reach the zone of saturation.3.2.11 soil horizonscontrasting layers of soil lying onebelow the other, parallel or nearly parallel to the land surface.Soil horizons are differentiated on the basis of field character-istics and laboratory data. The three major so
28、il horizons are:3.2.11.1 A horizonthe uppermost layer in the soil profileoften called the surface soil. It is the part of the soil in whichorganic matter is most abundant, and where leaching of solubleor suspended particles is the greatest.3.2.11.2 B horizonthe layer immediately beneath theA-horizon
29、 and often called the subsoil. This middle layercommonly contains more clay, iron, or aluminum than the A orC-horizons.3.2.11.3 C horizonthe deepest layer of the soil profile. Itconsists of loose material or weathered rock that is relativelyunaffected by biologic activity.3.2.12 spoiloverburden that
30、 has been removed duringsurface mining.3.2.13 stabilizeany method used to control movement ofsoil, spoil piles, or areas of disturbed earth and includesincreasing bearing capacity, increasing shear strength, drain-ing, compacting, or revegetating.3.2.14 water tablethe upper surface of saturation, wh
31、erethe body of ground water is not confined by an overlyingimpermeable zone. The seasonal high water table is the highestelevation that ground water reaches within the year.4. Significance and Use4.1 GeneralCCPs can effectively be used to reclaimsurface mines (5-10). First, CCPs are ideally suited f
32、or use innumerous reclamation applications. Any type of CCP may beevaluated for use in mine reclamation. Project specific testingis necessary to ensure that the CCPs selected for use on a givenproject will meet the project objectives. Second, the use ofCCPs can save money because they are available
33、in bulkquantities and reduce expenditures for the manufacture andpurchase of Portland cement or quicklime. Third, large-scale3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end ofthis standard.E2278042use of CCPs for mine reclamation conserves valuable landfillspace by re
34、cycling a valuable product to abate acid minedrainage and reduce the potential for mine subsidence, pro-vided that the CCP is environmentally and technically suitablefor the desired use. The availability of CCPs makes it possibleto reclaim abandoned mineland that could not otherwise bereclaimed.4.2
35、Physical and Chemical Properties and Behavior ofCCPsFly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, FGD material andFBC ash, or combinations thereof, can be used for minereclamation. Each of these materials typically exhibits generalphysical and chemical properties that must be considered in thedesign of a mine r
36、eclamation project using CCPs. The specificproperties of these materials vary from source to source soenvironmental and engineering performance testing is recom-mended for the material(s) or combinations to be used in minereclamation projects.4.2.1 Physical Properties:4.2.1.1 Unit WeightUnit weight
37、is the weight per unitvolume of material. Fly ash has a low dry unit weight, typicallyabout 50 to 100 pcf (8 to 16 kN/m3). Bottom ash is alsotypically lighter than coarse grained soils of similar gradation.Stabilized FGD material from a wet scrubber and FGDmaterial from a dry scrubber are also relat
38、ively lightweight,with unit weights similar to fly ash.4.2.1.2 StrengthShear strength is the maximum resistanceof a material to shearing stresses. The relatively high shearstrength of fly ash is beneficial for CCP flowable fill formula-tions requiring strengths sufficient to prevent mine subsidence.
39、The shear strength of non-self-hardening fly ash is primarilythe result of internal friction. Cementitious CCPs experience acementing action that is measured as cohesion and increasesover time, which results in high compressive strength. Uncon-fined compressive strengths in excess of 1000 psi can be
40、achieved for cementitious CCPs.4.2.1.3 Specific GravitySpecific gravity is the ratio of theweight in air of a given volume of solids at a stated temperatureto the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water at astated temperature. The particle specific gravity of fly ash isrelatively low com
41、pared to that of natural materials, andgenerally ranges from 2.1 to 2.6.4.2.1.4 Grain-Size DistributionGrain-size distribution de-scribes the proportion of various particle sizes present in amaterial. Fly ash is a uniformly-graded product with spherical,very fine grained particles.4.2.1.5 Moisture C
42、ontentMoisture content is the ratio ofthe mass of water contained in the pore spaces of soil or rockmaterial to the solid mass of particles in that material,expressed as a percentage. CCPs have almost no moisturewhen first collected after the combustion of coal. Power plantoperators sometimes add mo
43、isture to facilitate transport andhandling, a process termed “conditioning.”4.2.1.6 Coeffcient of PermeabilityPermeability is the ca-pacity of a material to transmit a liquid. When compacted to itsmaximum dry density, fly ash can have permeabilities rangingfrom 10 to 10-3gpd/ft2(10-4to 10-7cm/s). Th
44、ese permeabili-ties are comparable to natural silty soils.4.2.2 Chemical Properties:4.2.2.1 Elemental CompositionThe major elemental com-ponents of CCPs are silica, aluminum, iron, calcium, magne-sium, sodium, potassium, and sulfur. These elements arepresent in various amounts and combinations depen
45、dent pri-marily on the coal and type of CCP. The elements combine toform amorphous (glassy) or crystalline phases. Trace constitu-ents may include elements such as arsenic, boron, cadmium,chromium, copper, chlorine, mercury, manganese, molybde-num, selenium, or zinc.4.2.2.2 Phase AssociationsThe pri
46、mary elemental con-stituents of CCPs are present either as amorphous (glassy)phases or crystalline phases. Coal combustion fly ash istypically 70+ % amorphous material. FGD and FBC productsare primarily crystalline, and the crystalline phases typicallyinclude lime (CaO), portlandite (Ca(OH)2), hanne
47、bachite(CaSO312 H2O), and forms of calcium sulfate.4.2.2.3 Free Lime ContentFree lime content varies amongCCP sources and other potential activators (for example, limekiln dust, cement kiln dust, quicklime, or Portland cement).Variability of free lime content in CCP sources is due to thetype and eff
48、iciency of the emissions control technology that isused. FBC products typically contain up to 10 % free lime,while most Class F fly ash has no free lime content. The freelime content of other potential activators is also variable. Forexample, cement kiln dust typically ranges from 20 to 30 %free lim
49、e whereas quicklime contains 100 % free lime.4.2.2.4 Pozzolanic ActivityMost CCPs, with the exceptionof FGD material, are characterized as pozzolans due to thepresence of siliceous or siliceous and aluminous materials thatin themselves possess little or no cementitious value but will,in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture,chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary tempera-tures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.4.2.2.5 Buffer CapacityThe buffer capacity of the CCP isimportant in maintaining the high pH that
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