1、Designation: E422 05 (Reapproved 2016)Standard Test Method forMeasuring Heat Flux Using a Water-Cooled Calorimeter1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E422; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year o
2、f last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This test method covers the measurement of a steadyheat flux to a given water-cooled surface by means of a systemene
3、rgy balance.1.2 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded asstandard. No other units of measurement are included in thisstandard.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to es
4、tablish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2E235 Specification for Thermocouples, Sheathed, Type Kand Type N, for Nuclear or for Other High-ReliabilityApplications3. Summary of Tes
5、t Method3.1 A measure of the heat flux to a given water-cooledsurface is based upon the following measurements: (1) thewater mass flow rate and (2) the temperature rise of coolantwater. The heat flux is determined numerically by multiplyingthe water coolant flow rate by the specific heat and rise in
6、temperature of the water and dividing this value by the surfacearea across which heat has been transferred.3.2 The apparatus for measuring heat flux by the energy-balance technique is illustrated schematically in Fig. 1.Itisatypical constant-flow water calorimeter used to measure stag-nation region
7、heat flux to a flat-faced specimen. Other calo-rimeter shapes can also be easily used. The heat flux ismeasured using the central circular sensing area, shown in Fig.1. The water-cooled annular guard ring serves the purpose ofpreventing heat transfer to the sides of the calorimeter andestablishes fl
8、at-plate flow. An energy balance on the system(the centrally located calorimeter in Fig. 1) requires that theenergy crossing the sensing surface (A,inFig. 1)ofthecalorimeter be equated to the energy absorbed by the calorim-eter cooling water. Interpretation of the data obtained is notwithin the scop
9、e of this discussion; consequently, such effectsas recombination efficiency of the surface and thermochemicalstate of the boundary layer are outside the scope of this testmethod. It should be noted that recombination effects at lowpressures can cause serious discrepancies in heat flux measure-ments
10、(such as discussed in Ref (1)3depending upon thesurface material on the calorimeter.3.3 For the particular control volume cited, the energybalance can be written as follows:ECAL5 mCpT02 T1!#/A (1)where:ECAL= energy flux transferred to calorimeter face, Wm2m = mass flow rate of coolant water, kgs1Cp=
11、 water specific heat, Jkg1K1,T0= T02 T01calorimeter water bulk temperature riseduring operation, K,T1= T2 T1= calorimeter water apparent bulk tempera-ture rise before operation, K,T02= water exhaust bulk temperature during operation, K,T01= water inlet bulk temperature during operation, K,T2= water
12、exhaust bulk temperature before operation, K,T1= water inlet bulk temperature before operation, K,andA = sensing surface area of calorimeter, m2.3.4 An examination of Eq 1 shows that to obtain a value ofthe energy transferred to the calorimeter, measurements mustbe made of the water coolant flow rat
13、e, the temperature rise ofthe coolant, and the surface area across which heat is trans-ferred. With regard to the latter quantity it is assumed that thesurface area to which heat is transferred is well defined. As isindicated in Fig. 1, the design of the calorimeter is such that theheat transfer are
14、a is confined by design to the front or directlyheated surface. To minimize side heating or side heat losses, a1This test method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee E21 on SpaceSimulation and Applications of Space Technology and is the direct responsibility ofSubcommittee E21.08 on Thermal P
15、rotection.Current edition approved April 1, 2016. Published April 2016. Originallyapproved in 1971. Last previous edition approved in 2011 as E422 05 (2011).DOI: 10.1520/E0422-05R16.2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.o
16、rg. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end ofthis test method.Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohoc
17、ken, PA 19428-2959. United States1water-cooled guard ring or shroud is utilized and is separatedphysically from the calorimeter by means of an air gap and lowconductivity bushing such as nylon. The air gap is recom-mended to be no more than 0.5 mm on the radius. Thus, ifsevere pressure variations ex
18、ist across the face of thecalorimeter, side heating caused by flow into and out of the airgap will be minimized. Also, since the water-cooled calorim-eter and guard ring operate at low surface temperatures(usually lower than 100C) heat losses across the gap byradiant interchange are negligible and c
19、onsequently no specialcalorimeter surface gap finishes are necessary. Depending uponthe size of the calorimeter surface, large variations in heat fluxmay exist across the face of the calorimeter. Consequently, themeasured heat flux represents an average heat flux over thesurface area of the water-co
20、oled calorimeter. The water-cooledcalorimeter can be used to measure heat-flux levels over arange from 10 kW/m2to 60 MW/m2.4. Significance and Use4.1 The purpose of this test method is to measure the heatflux to a water-cooled surface for purposes of calibration of thethermal environment into which
21、test specimens are placed forevaluation. If the calorimeter and holder size, shape, andsurface finish are identical to that of the test specimen, themeasured heat flux to the calorimeter is presumed to be thesame as that to the samples heated surface. The measured heatflux is one of the important pa
22、rameters for correlating thebehavior of materials.4.2 The water-cooled calorimeter is one of several calorim-eter concepts used to measure heat flux. The prime drawback isits long response time, that is, the time required to achievesteady-state operation. To calculate energy added to the coolantwate
23、r, accurate measurements of the rise in coolant tempera-ture are needed, all energy losses should be minimized, andsteady-state conditions must exist both in the thermal environ-ment and fluid flow of the calorimeter.4.3 Regardless of the source of energy input to the water-cooled calorimeter surfac
24、e (radiative, convective, or combina-tions thereof) the measurement is averaged over the surfaceactive area of the calorimeter. If the water-cooled calorimeter isused to measure only radiative flux or combined convective-radiative heat-flux rates, then the surface reflectivity of thecalorimeter shal
25、l be measured over the wavelength region ofinterest (depending on the source of radiant energy). If non-uniformities exist in the gas stream, a large surface areawater-cooled calorimeter would tend to smooth or average anyvariations. Consequently, it is advisable that the size of thecalorimeter be l
26、imited to relatively small surface areas andapplied to where the heat-flux is uniform. Where large samplesare tested it is recommended that a number of smaller diameterwater-cooled calorimeters be used (rather than one large unit).These shall be located across the heated surface such that aheat-flux
27、 distribution can be described. With this, a moredetailed heat-flux measurement can be applied to the specimentest and more information can be deduced from the test.5. Apparatus5.1 GeneralThe apparatus shall consist of a water-cooledcalorimeter and the necessary instrumentation to measure theheat tr
28、ansferred to the calorimeter. Although the recommendedinstrumentation accuracies are state-of-the-art values, morerugged and higher accuracy instrumentation may be requiredfor high pressure and high heat-flux applications. A number ofmaterials can be used to fabricate the calorimeter, but OFHC(oxyge
29、n free high conductivity) copper is often preferredbecause of its superior thermal properties.5.2 Coolant Flow MeasurementThe water flow rate toeach component of the calorimeter shall be chosen to cool theapparatus adequately and to ensure accurately measurable risein water temperature. The error in
30、 water flow rate measurementshall be not more than 62 %. Suitable equipment that can beused is listed in Ref (2) and includes turbine flowmeters,variable area flowmeters, etc. Care must be exercised in the useof all these devices. In particular, it is recommended thatappropriate filters be placed in
31、 all water inlet lines to preventparticles or unnecessary deposits from being carried to thewater-cooling passages, pipe, and meter walls. Water flow ratesand pressure shall be adjusted to ensure that no bubbles areformed (no boiling). If practical, the water flowmeters shall beplaced upstream of th
32、e calorimeter in straight portions of thepiping. The flowmeter device shall be checked and calibratedFIG. 1 Steady-State Water-Cooled Calorimeter.E422 05 (2016)2periodically. Pressure gages, if required, shall be used inaccordance with the manufacturers instructions and calibra-tion charts.5.3 Coola
33、nt Temperature MeasurementThe method oftemperature measurement must be sufficiently sensitive andreliable to ensure accurate measurement of the coolant watertemperature rise. Procedures similar to those given in Specifi-cation E235, Type K, and Ref (3) should be followed in thecalibration and prepar
34、ation of temperature sensors. The bulk oraverage temperature of the coolant shall be measured at theinlet and outlet lines of each cooled unit. The error inmeasurement of temperature difference between inlet andoutlet shall be not more than 61 %. The water temperatureindicating devices shall be plac
35、ed as close as practical to thecalorimeters heated surface in the inlet and outlet lines.However, care must be exercised so as not to place thetemperature sensors where there is energy exchange betweenthe incoming (cold) water and the outgoing (heated) water.This occurs most readily at flow dividers
36、 and at the calorimetersensing surface. No additional apparatus shall be placed in theline between the temperature sensor and the heat source. Thetemperature measurements shall be recorded continuously toverify that steady-state operation has been achieved. Reference(2) lists a variety of commercial
37、ly available temperaturesensors. Temperature sensors which are applicable includeliquid-in-glass thermometers, thermopiles, thermocouples, andthermistors. During operation of the heat source, care should betaken to minimize deposits on the temperature sensors and toeliminate any possibility of senso
38、r heating because of specimenradiation to the sensor. In addition, all water lines should beshielded from direct-flow impingement or radiation from thetest environment.5.3.1 If at all practical a thermocouple shall be placed on thewater-cooled side of the heated calorimeter surface. Althoughthis sur
39、face temperature (water side) measurement is not useddirectly in the calculation of heat flux it is necessary for thecalculation of the surface temperature (front face) used in thecorrection of the measured heat flux to walls of differenttemperatures.5.4 Recording Means:5.4.1 Since measurement of th
40、e energy transfer requires thatthe calorimeter operate as a steady state device, all calculationswill use only measurements taken after it has been establishedthat the device has achieved steady operating levels. To assuresteady flow or operating conditions the above mentionedparameters shall be con
41、tinuously recorded such that instanta-neous measurements are available to establish a measure ofsteady-state operation. Wherever possible it is highly desirablethat the differential temperature (T) be made of the desiredparameters rather than absolute measurements.5.4.2 In all cases, parameters of i
42、nterest, such as water flowrates and cooling water temperature rises should be automati-cally recorded throughout the measurement period. Recordingspeed or sampling frequency will depend on the variations ofthe parameters being recorded. When a strip chart recorder isused, the response time of the r
43、ecorder shall be1sorless forfull-scale deflection. Timing marks should be an integral partof the recorder with a minimum requirement of 1/s.6. Procedure6.1 It is essential that the environment be at steady-stateconditions prior to testing if the water-cooled calorimeter is togive a representative me
44、asure of the heat flux.6.2 After a sufficient length of time has elapsed to assureconstant mass flow of water as well as constant inlet and outletwater temperature, place the system into the heat-sourceenvironment. Steady-state operation has been assured if theinlet and exhaust water temperature, an
45、d water flow rates aresteady and not changing with time. In particular the water flowrates should not change during operation. After removing thecalorimeter from the environment, record the inlet watertemperature and flow rates so that they can be compared withpretest values. Changes between pre- an
46、d post-test watertemperature rise may indicate deposit buildups on the calorim-eter backface or cooling passages which may alter the results ofthe measurement of energy transfer.6.3 To ensure consistent heat-flux data, it is recommendedthat measurements be repeated with the same apparatus. Afurther
47、check on the measurement of heat flux using awater-cooled calorimeter would be to use a different mass flowof water through the calorimeter for different test runs. Nosignificant difference in heat-flux measurements should benoted with the change in water flow rate for different test runs.7. Heat-Fl
48、ux Calculation7.1 The quantities as defined by Eq 1 shall be calculatedbased on the bulk or average temperature rise of the coolantwater for each water-cooled section of the calorimeter. Thechoice of units shall be consistent with the measured quantities.7.2 Variance analyses of heat-source conditio
49、ns shall pro-vide a sound basis for estimation of the reproducibility of thethermal environment. Refs (4) and (5) may provide a basis forerror analysis of the measurements.8. Report8.1 In reporting the results of the measurement tests, thefollowing steady-state data shall be reported:8.1.1 Dimensions of the calorimeter configuration activesurface and guard ring,8.1.2 Calorimeter coolant water flow rate,8.1.3 Temperature rise of calorimeter coolant water,8.1.4 Calculated heat flux,8.1.5 Front surface temperature (if measured or calculated),and8.1.6 Variance o
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