1、Designation: F 1633 97 (Reapproved 2003)Standard Guide forTechniques in Land Search1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1633; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in
2、parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide identifies and describes techniques that maybe used by individuals or agencies when searching for persons,property, or evidence on la
3、nd. The application of one or moreof these techniques to any particular land search will dependupon the individual circumstances of the search and thejudgment of the person responsible for conducting the search.1.2 This guide assists individuals and agencies by providinga list of techniques for thei
4、r consideration during a land searchand by providing a brief description of the application of thetechnique to land search. Some advantages and disadvantages,as well as the most common uses of the techniques, arediscussed in the guide. The guide does not, however, purport todiscuss all aspects of co
5、nducting a land search.1.3 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior
6、 to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standard:2F 1767 Guide for Forms Used in Search and Rescue3. Terminology3.1 Definitions:3.1.1 attraction, nto get the attention of lost, missing, orstranded subject(s) by sound or visual methods, or both, forexample, whistle, light, smoke.3.1.2 clue awareness,
7、 nto be aware of evidence left by asubject(s) which may help to ascertain their location ordirection of travel, or both.3.1.3 confinement, nthe act of limiting the growth of thepotential search area by minimizing the ability of the subject(s)leaving the search area undetected.3.1.4 electronic search
8、, ntechnique(s) using electronicsystems or devices to locate a subject(s) or evidence, or both.3.1.5 hasty search, vto send a fast moving, well-trainedcrew(s) of searchers to quickly check selected high probabilityarea(s).3.1.6 investigation, nthe systematic collection and analy-sis of information a
9、bout the lost or missing subject(s) byinterviewing (interrogation) or reviewing records or evidence,or both.3.1.7 line search, vto use searchers in a linear pattern(s) atspecified intervals, to investigate a defined search segment.3.1.8 probability of area (POA), nthe probability of asubject or clue
10、 being in the area or segment being searched.3.1.9 probability of detection (POD), nthe probability thatthe subject or clue will be detected by the search action if thesubject or clue is in the search area.3.1.10 search dog, ncanine trained in techniques to locatea subject(s) or evidence, or both.3.
11、1.11 search dog crew(s), ncanine and their handler(s)trained in search techniques to locate a subject(s) or evidence,or both.3.1.12 segment (search area), na geographic unit withinthe search area established for the purpose of effective andefficient assignment of search resources.3.1.13 segmentation
12、, nthe process of partitioning thesearch area into segments.3.1.14 segmentation, binary, nto reduce the size of asearch area through subdivision into increasingly smallersegments.3.1.15 tracking, vto follow a subject(s) footprint(s),track(s), or sign through varying types of terrain.3.2 Definitions
13、of Terms Specific to This Standard:3.2.1 breakage, na physical rupture of material or thesurface of material, such as frequently seen when vegetation iscrushed or bent by external forces such as the passage ofsubjects.3.2.2 bruising, nchanges in the subsurface of vegetationwhich generally leaves the
14、 surface intact but noticeably differ-ent and is the result of vegetation being crushed or squeezed byexternal forces such as the passage of a subject(s).3.2.3 color change, nchanges in tone or contrast of asurface as a result of a disturbance which causes the disturbedarea to appear different from
15、the surroundings. An example ofsuch a change would be the turning up of sub-soil with more1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F32 on Search andRescue and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee F32.02 on Management andOperations.Current edition approved Nov. 1, 2003. Publish
16、ed November 2003. Originallyapproved in 1995. Last previous edition approved in 1997 as F 1633 - 97.2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Do
17、cument Summary page onthe ASTM website.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.moisture than the drier surface soil, thereby creating a darkerpattern in the disturbed area. See also shine.3.2.4 disturbance, nevidence of recen
18、t change, displace-ment, or rearrangement such as dislodged rocks, pebbles,twigs, or bruised leaves. Other evidence could include breaksin branches, twigs, or bruised leaves at or above the ground.3.2.5 flattening, nwhen pebbles, twigs, and other objectsare pushed below their natural bed, indicating
19、 that somethingvery hard such as a sole or hoof of an animal has stepped onthem.3.2.6 scuff, na disturbance caused by the dragging of afoot on a surface such as is evidenced by the displacement ofa lichen on a rock.3.2.7 shine, nan apparent color change in the reflection oflight from surfaces as a r
20、esult of disturbance to the area.Frequently seen as dew laden grass that has had the moistureknocked from it as a subject walks through it or as flattenedgrass from foot pressure. This is most easily seen fromdistances between 5 and 10 m.3.2.8 sign, nany evidence of external forces acting uponthe en
21、vironment. Emphasis is placed on sign that indicates thepassage of the subject(s) being sought. Examples include a solepattern imbedded in the soil as a sign that a person or shoeshave been there.3.3 Terminology not defined in this guide but referenced inthe text can be found in ICS 420,3Managing th
22、e SearchFunction,4and in Search is an Emergency.54. Summary of Guide4.1 This guide presents the land search manager with a briefsynopsis of various land search techniques that have beenshown to be effective in locating missing subjects or evidence.Some known strengths and weaknesses are discussed to
23、 assistthe land search manager in selecting the most appropriate set oftechniques for the incident at hand.4.2 Much of the information in the guide comes fromclassroom materials available through the National Associationfor Search and Rescue Managing the Search Function4Courseand from the Emergency
24、Response Institutes classroom textSearch is an Emergency.55. Significance and Use5.1 Lost persons are at risk of injury or death from extendedperiods of isolation, either mental, physical, or both. Theirinability to solve immediate problems requires that search andrescue (SAR) personnel use the most
25、 efficient and effectivetechniques to resolve the lost persons situation and to mini-mize the risks of injury or death.5.2 Searching for immobile or unresponsive subjects, in-cluding those deceased, places further limitations upon thesearch options that are available to search managers. Whereappropr
26、iate, the guide identifies these limitations.5.3 The use of the listed techniques improves the probabilityof locating a lost or missing person when applied to land searchincidents. These techniques may be employed at the discretionof and under the direction and control of a land searchmanager.5.4 Te
27、rms used in this guide are not intended to be compre-hensive, nor are they presumed to be inclusive of all terminol-ogy used in the search function.6. General Considerations6.1 Operational factors that are common to any search butnot specific to any one phase or element of the operation arelisted in
28、 Table 1. Each factor should be considered wheninitiating a search for a lost subject(s). Often these consider-ations can be summarized to a single form such as is given inthe example in Appendix X1.7. Land Search Techniques7.1 AttractionMethod of searching, in which the searcherattempts to establis
29、h contact with the subject by audio or visualmeans, or both. When the technique is used it is important thatthe searcher remains stationary for a long enough period oftime to be sure the subject will respond if able. This method isused when the subject is believed to be responsive. Thesubject(s) may
30、 or may not be mobile, although mobilityimproves the usefulness of the technique in many instances.7.1.1 There are many ways of attracting a subject (see Table2). Which method to use depends on a great variety ofconditions that may exist during the search. Some of theconditions to be considered are
31、local background noise,weather, natural and artificial lighting present, topography,time of day/year, and resources available.7.1.2 Attraction can be used in conjunction with othersearch techniques. When searchers are moving it is importantto stop at various intervals to look and listen for a respon
32、se.Observation and listening posts may be established throughouta search area.3International Fire Service Training Association, Incident Command SystemField Operations Guide, ICS 420 available from the International Fire ServiceTraining Association, Fire Protection Publications, Oklahoma State Unive
33、rsity,Stillwater, OK 74078.4Managing the Search Function, Third Edition, 1987. Available from theNational Association for Search and Rescue, P.O. Box 3709, Fairfax, VA 22038.5LaValla, Rick and Stoffel, Skip. 1987. Search is an Emergency, EmergencyResponse Institute, 4537 Foxhall Drive, Olympia, Wash
34、ington 98506.TABLE 1 General Considerations for Land SearchSubject Considerations: number of subjectsagephysical condition and abilitiesmental condition and attitudeknowledge and trainingclothingequipmentself-rescue likelihoodTerrain Considerations: difficulty of traveldifficulty of accessremoteness
35、exposure to object hazardsWeather Considerations: recent pastpresentfutureTime Considerations: last seenremaining light, if anysign age/longevityResource Considerations: available personnelavailable equipmentknowledge, training and experienceavailable air-evac assetsF 1633 97 (2003)27.2 ConfinementA
36、 search technique that presumes thesubjects ability to leave a search area can be prevented or atleast detected. It is most useful when several items of pertinentinformation are known, thereby enabling the subjects rate oftravel to be estimated. This information includes the point lastseen (PLS), th
37、e time the person became lost, and the mobilityof the subject keeping in mind that weather or darkness mayfurther limit the subjects mobility.7.2.1 Confinement is less effective when the search area isnot well defined or is extremely large. If search tools such asstring lines or other temporary boun
38、daries must be built, it willrequire much time and manpower, thereby increasing thechances that the subject(s) may leave the search area undetec-ted.7.2.2 Terrain features may be conducive to the confinementtechnique if the borders of the search segment are well definedby natural or man-made boundar
39、ies.3Under these circum-stances, boundaries tend to direct or restrict the subjects travel.7.3 Electronic SearchThe use of electronic systems ordevices to locate a subject(s) or evidence, or both. Whichelectronic search techniques can be used depends upon whatequipment is available, whether or not t
40、he subject or evidenceis specially equipped (for example, RECCOy,6ELT), andwhether or not the subject(s) are responsive. Table 3 summa-rizes the suitability of the various techniques to specificcircumstances of a search.7.3.1 All of these methods, except for infrared illuminationand light amplificat
41、ion, which can be used only at night, can beused day or night. Most infrared thermal imaging systems workonly at night, but systems that produce color images can beused during the day. All the methods can be used in anyweather or terrain, but the acoustic and seismic techniquesneed a relatively quie
42、t environment to function properly.7.4 Hasty SearchA planned, rapid, non-thorough search,of high probability areas, by small, fast moving, clue consciouscrews. This active method of searching is usually used in theearly phases of a land search to search the areas where thesubject is most likely to b
43、e located, or to find a clue to givedirection of travel, or both. Some areas in which a hasty crewmay be used include known or suspected routes (for example,trails), the area around the point last seen, areas which might beattractive to the subject (for example, ponds, rivers, meadows,vistas), drain
44、ages, and ridge tops.7.5 InvestigationThe act of gathering information, oftenreferred to as intelligence, about the lost person(s). In thecourse of investigation, information is gathered regarding twoelements of lost persons. The first involves subject behaviorand survivability profiles within the b
45、oundaries of the searcharea. The second pertains to the potential whereabouts andplight of missing persons who are potentially outside the searcharea (staged incident5or “bastard” search7). This could beinformation needed by criminal investigators should the searchbecome criminal in nature.7.5.1 Int
46、elligence is gathered from interviews with personsother than the subject(s), review of records, and examination ofevidence found during the course of the search. Relatives,friends, associates, and persons in the search area are primecandidates for interviews. Record reviews might include usepermits,
47、 rental agreements, Department of Motor Vehicles,criminal history, and personal records left by the missingsubject(s). Evidence examination may include vehicles, camp-sites, and other items found in the search area.7.5.2 Many agencies have found it desirable to developstandardized missing subject fo
48、rms similar to the examplesgiven in Guide F 1767. The forms help remind investigators ofthe types of information to be gathered as well as to documentthe investigators findings. Forms are also a convenient way tocommunicate and review missing subject information duringsubsequent operational periods
49、of a search.NOTE 1Missing subject forms come in a variety of lengths andcomplexities. Content and length vary to support the documentationrequirements of the responsible agency and to supplement the abilities ofthe investigator. Many are designed to be specific to an agencys primaryform of response (law enforcement, land search, marine rescue, and soforth).7.6 Line SearchIncludes many methods of searching, allof which use a number of searchers forming a line of some sort6RECCO is a registered trademark of RECCO Technologies, 2396 CaledoniaAve., Nor
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