1、Designation: F1788 08F1788 14Standard Guide forIn-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental andOperational Considerations1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F1788; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of rev
2、ision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide covers the use of in-situ burning to assist in the control of oil spills on water.This g
3、uide is not applicable to in-situburning of oil on land.1.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide information that will enable spill responders to decide if burning will be used as partof the oil spill cleanup response. Other standards address the use of ignition devices (Guide F1990), the use of
4、fire-resistant boom(Guide F2152), the use of burning in ice conditions (Guide F2230), the application of in-situ burning in ships (Guide F2533), andthe use of in-situ burning in marshes (Guide F2823).1.3 This is a general guide only. It is assumed that conditions at the spill site have been assessed
5、 and that these conditions aresuitable for the burning of oil. It is also assumed that permission to burn the oil has been obtained from appropriate regulatoryauthorities. Variations in the behavior of different oil types are not dealt with and may change some of the parameters noted in thisguide.1.
6、4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as standard. The values given in parentheses are mathematical conversionsto inch-pound units that are included for information only and are not considered No other units of measurement are included inthis standard.1.4.1 ExceptionAlternate units are
7、included in 7.5, 7.7, and 7.8.1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibilityof the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety and health practices and determine the applicability of regulatorylimitations
8、prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2F1990 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Spilled Oil: Ignition DevicesF2152 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Spilled Oil: Fire-Resistant BoomF2230 Guide for In-situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Ice ConditionsF2533 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Oil in S
9、hips or Other VesselsF2823 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Oil Spills in Marshes3. Terminology3.1 Definitions:3.1.1 burn effciencyburn efficiency is the percentage of the oil removed from the water by the burning.3.1.1.1 DiscussionBurn efficiency is the amount (volume) of oil before burning; less the v
10、olume remaining as a residue, divided by the initial volumeof the oil.1 This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on Hazardous Substances and Oil Spill Responseand is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee F20.15on In-Situ Burning.Current edition approved Sept. 15, 2008March 1, 2
11、014. Published September 2008March 2014. Originally approved in 1997. Last previous edition approved in 20032008as F1788 97 (2003).F1788 08. DOI: 10.1520/F1788-08.10.1520/F1788-14.2 For referencedASTM standards, visit theASTM website, www.astm.org, or contactASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org.
12、 For Annual Book of ASTM Standardsvolume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page on the ASTM website.This document is not an ASTM standard and is intended only to provide the user of an ASTM standard an indication of what changes have been made to the previous version. Becauseit ma
13、y not be technically possible to adequately depict all changes accurately, ASTM recommends that users consult prior editions as appropriate. In all cases only the current versionof the standard as published by ASTM is to be considered the official document.Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harb
14、or Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States13.1.2 burn ratethe rate at which oil is burned in a given area.3.1.2.1 DiscussionTypically, the area is a pool and burn rate is the regression rate of the burning liquid, or may be described as a volumetric rate.3.1.3 contact pro
15、babilitythe probability that oil will be contacted by the flame during burning.3.1.4 controlled burningburning when the combustion can be started and stopped by human intervention.3.1.5 fire-resistant boomsdevices that float on water to restrict the spreading and movement of oil slicks andbooms inte
16、ndedfor containment of burning oil slicks (Guide F2152constructed to withstand the high temperatures and heat fluxes of in-situburning.).3.1.6 in-situ burninguse of burning directly on the water surface.3.1.6.1 DiscussionIn-situ burning does not include incineration techniques, whereby oil or oiled
17、debris are placed into an incinerator.3.1.7 residuethe material, excluding airborne emissions, remaining after the oil stops burning.4. Significance and Use4.1 This guide is primarily intended to aid decision-makers and spill-responders in contingency planning, spill response, andtraining.4.2 This g
18、uide is not specific to either site or type of oil.5. Background5.1 Overview of Oil Burning:5.1.1 In-situ burning is one of several oil-spill countermeasures available. Other countermeasures could include mechanicalrecovery, use of oil-spill dispersants, and leaving the oil to natural processes.5.1.
19、2 In-situ burning is combustion at the spill site without removing the oil from the water. Containment techniques may beused, however, to increase the thickness of the oil (Guide F2152). The thickness of the oil slick is an important factor in the useof in-situ burning.5.2 Major Advantages and Disad
20、vantages of In-situ Burning:5.2.1 Advantages of in-situ burning include the following:5.2.1.1 Rapid removal of oil from the water surface,5.2.1.2 Requirement for less equipment and labor than many other techniques,5.2.1.3 Significant reduction in the amount of material requiring disposal,5.2.1.4 Sig
21、nificant removal of volatile emission components, and5.2.1.5 May be the only solution possible, such as in oil-in-ice situations.5.2.2 Disadvantages of in-situ burning include the following:5.2.2.1 Creation Significant amounts of a smoke plume,are generated,5.2.2.2 Residues of the burn must be dealt
22、 with,5.2.2.3 Time in which to ignite the oil may be limited,5.2.2.4 Oil must be a minimum thickness to burn, which may require containment, and5.2.2.5 The fire may spread to other combustible materials.6. Environmental Considerations for Deciding to Use In-Situ Burning6.1 Air Quality:6.1.1 Several
23、studies have been done of the air emissions resulting from in-situ burning. It has been found that the smoke plumeconsists largely of carbon. The high temperatures achieved during in-situ burning result in efficient removal of most componentsof the oil. The thick, black smoke can be of concern to ne
24、arby human populations or ecologically sensitive areas. Since most sootprecipitation occurs near the fire, this is the main area of concern. The smoke plume is, however, generallycan also be an aestheticconcern. In-situ burning should be avoided within 1 km upwind of either an ecologically sensitive
25、 or a heavily populated area,depending on meteorological conditions. No emissions greater than one fourth of the 2008 human health exposure limits have beendetected at ground level further than 1 km from an oil fire. The values of the human health exposure limits vary with jurisdiction,and, thus, th
26、e appropriate documents should be consulted. The environmental and economic trade-offs of burning the oil, asopposed to contamination of the shoreline, must be considered.6.1.2 Burning can be safely conducted near populated areas if there is sufficient air turbulence for mixing, and in the absenceof
27、 a low-level atmospheric inversion.F1788 1426.2 Water QualityMeasurements show that burning does not accelerate the release of oil components or combustionby-products to the water column. Highly efficient burns of heavy oils may form a dense residue that sinks.6.3 Wildlife ConcernsAlthough no specif
28、ic biological concerns related to the use of in-situ combustion have been identifiedto date, benthic resources may be affected by sunken oil burn residue.7. Operational Considerations for In-situ Burning7.1 Safety ConsiderationsThe safety of the proposed operation shall be the primary consideration.
29、 Secondly, the burningoperation shall not result in unintentional flashback to the source of the oil, for example, the tanker or the production platform.The third consideration is the spread of the fire to other combustible material in the area, including trees, docks, and buildings.Flashback and fi
30、re spread can often be prevented by using containment booms to tow away the oil to be burned. A fourthconsideration is the safety of the ignition operation, which is often done from helicopters, and the safety of the boom tow operationmust be ensured.7.2 Safety Monitoring and Control RequirementsThe
31、 operation must be monitored to meet safety requirements. Burning shallbe monitored to ensure that fire may not spread to adjacent combustible material. Situation-specific contingency methods ofextinguishing, such as boats with fire monitors, shall be available. In towed-boom operations, it has been
32、 proposed that the firemay be extinguished by increasing the tow speed so that the oil is entrained in the water. Other options for controlling the fire orthe burn rate might include releasing one side of the oil containment boom or slowing down to reduce the encounter rate.7.3 Oil ThicknessMost oil
33、s can be ignited on a water surface if they are a minimum of 2 to 3 mm thick (Guide F1990). Onceignited, the oils will burn down to a thickness of about 1 mm. Physical containment, such as with oil-spill containment booms,is usually necessary to achieve the minimum thicknesses required. Specific inf
34、ormation on this is provided in the appendix.7.4 Oil Type and ConditionHighly weathered oils will burn, but will require sustained heat during ignition. Oil that isemulsified with water may not burn. Not enough data are available to determine water-content levels that limit ignition. Indicationsare,
35、 however, that stable emulsions which typically contain about 70 % water cannot be ignited and that oils containing less thanabout 25 % water will burn. Treatment with chemicals to remove water (de-emulsifiers) before burning can permit ignition.7.5 Wind and Sea ConditionsStrong winds may extinguish
36、 the fire. In-situ burning can be done on the sea with winds lessthan about 40 km/h (about 20 knots). High sea states are not conducive to containment by booms. Wave heights of 1 m or moremay result in splash-over of the oil.7.6 Burn EffciencyBurn efficiency, which is the percentage of oil removed b
37、y burning, has been measured as high as 99 %for contained oil. Presence of debris, water, or ice can lower this to as much as half. Burn efficiency is largely a function of oilthickness and flame-contact probability. Contact probability is the probability that oil will be contacted by the flame duri
38、ngburning. Inhomogeneous oil Heterogeneous oil distribution on the surface can result in an incomplete burn. This can result as theflame may be extinguished over a patch that is not thick enough to burn, while adjacent patches that are thick enough willsubsequently not be burned. Contact is usuallym
39、ay be random and is influenced by wind speed and direction and can be controlledby human intervention in some cases.7.7 Burn RateOil burns at the rate of about 2 to 3.7 mm/min, which meansthe rate that the surface of the oil slick regressesdownwards at the rate of 3.7 mm/min. downwards. This transla
40、tes to a rate of about 5000 L/m2/day (or 100 gal/ft2/day). Heavyoils can burn at lesser rates such as about 2 mm/min. Other than this factor, burn rate is relatively independent of physicalconditions and oil type. Using these values, it is possible to calculate the rate of burning in booms and in ot
41、her burn operations.7.8 ContainmentOil slicks must be a minimum thickness to be ignited.As oil naturally spreads quickly to much thinner slicksthan this under normal circumstances, physical containment is generally necessary for burning. Fire-resistant booms arecommercially available for this purpos
42、e. While these booms can be used in a variety of configurations, they are best used in acatenary mode and towed at speeds less than 0.35 m/s (0.7 knots). At speeds greater than this, oil is lost under the boom byentrainment. Slicks can sometimes be naturally contained by ice or against shorelines.7.
43、9 IgnitionSlicks can be ignited with a variety of devices (Guide F1990). Enough heat must be supplied for a sufficient lengthof time. Weathered oils generally require a longer heating time to ignite.7.10 Residue Cleanup:7.10.1 Residue is the material remaining after the oil stops burning. Residue is
44、 similar to a highly weathered oil, depending onthe burn conditions. It is viscous and often highly adhesive. Highly efficient burns result in heavier and denser residue. Theseresidues may actually be denser than sea water.7.10.2 Floating residue can be removed manually withsorbents, nets, or simila
45、r equipment.8. Summary8.1 In-situ burning is a viable countermeasure that has the potential to quickly remove large amounts of oil. The air emissionsof in-situ burning are below health and environmental concern levels at certain distances from the combustion source.F1788 1439. Keywords9.1 fire-resis
46、tant booms; in-situ burning; oil-spill burning; oil-spill containment; oil-spill disposalAPPENDIX(Nonmandatory Information)X1. INTRODUCTION TO THE IN-SITU BURNING OF OIL SPILLSINTRODUCTIONIn-situ burning has been used as an oil-spill countermeasure around the world (1, 2).3 Recently,extensive Extens
47、ive research has been conducted on the many facets of burning oil (3, 4, 5). Theemissions from and basic principles of oil-spill burning are now relatively well-understood.X1.1 Basic Principles of Burning OilX1.1.1 Oil slicks can be ignited if they are at least 2 to 3 mm thick and will continue to b
48、urn down to slicks of about 1 to 2 mmthick (6). These thicknesses are required because of heat transfer. Sufficient heat is required to vaporize material for continuedcombustion. In a thin slick, most of the heat is lost to the water, vaporization is not sustained, and combustion ceases.X1.1.2 Conta
49、inment is usually required to concentrate oil slicks so that they are thick enough to ignite and burn (7). Fire-resistantcontainment booms can be used to keep fire from spreading back to the spill source, such as an oil tanker (8). Burning in situwithout the benefit of containment booms can be undertaken only if the oil is thick enough (2 to 3 mm) to ignite. For most crudeoil spills, this only occurs for a few hours after the spill event unless the oil is confined behind a barrier. Oil on the open sea spreadsrapidly to equilibrium thicknesses. For light
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