1、Designation: F 2333 04An American National StandardStandard Test Method forTraction Characteristics of the Athletic ShoeSports SurfaceInterface1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 2333; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in t
2、he case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This test method covers specifications for the perfor-mance of sports shoe-surface t
3、raction measuring devices, butdoes not require a specific device or mechanism to be used.Figs. 1 and 2 show schematic diagrams of generic apparatus.1.2 This test method is appropriate for measuring the effectsof athletic shoe outsole design and materials on traction at theshoe-surface interface.1.3
4、This test method is appropriate for measuring the effectsof sport surface design and materials on traction at theshoe-surface interface.1.4 This test method specifies test procedures that areappropriate for both field and laboratory testing.1.5 Traction characteristics measured by this test methoden
5、compass friction forces developed between shoe outsolesand playing surfaces.1.6 Traction characteristics measured by this test methodencompass traction achieved by penetration of cleats or studsinto playing surfaces.1.7 This test method specifies test procedures for the mea-surement of traction duri
6、ng linear translational motion androtational motion, but not simultaneous combinations of linearand translational motion.1.8 The loads and load rates specified in this test method arespecific to sports activities. The test method is not intended formeasurement of slip resistance or traction of pedes
7、trian foot-wear.1.9 Test results obtained by this method shall be qualified bythe characteristics of the specimen.1.9.1 Comparative tests of surfaces shall be qualified by thecharacteristics of the shoes used to test the surfaces, includingthe cushioning, outsole material, and sole design.1.9.2 Comp
8、arative tests of shoes shall be qualified by thepertinent characteristics of the surfaces on which shoes aretested, including the surface type, material, condition, andtemperature.1.10 This test method does not establish performance orsafety criteria. The level of traction required between a sportsh
9、oe and surface varies with the level of performance and fromindividual to individual. The extent to which particular levelsof traction contribute to individual athletic performance andrisk of injury is not known.1.11 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded as thestandard.1.12 This standard
10、may involve hazardous materials, opera-tions and equipment. This standard does not purport to addressall of the safety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It isthe responsibility of the user of this standard to establishappropriate safety and health practices and determine theapplicability of
11、 regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 SAE Standard:SAE J211 Recommended Practice for Instrumentation forImpact Tests23. Terminology3.1 Definitions:3.1.1 footforma rigid form approximating the shape of afoot or shoe last to which the shoe under test may be tightlyfitted and
12、through which the loads required by this test methodmay be transmitted.3.1.2 tractionresistance to relative motion between a shoeoutsole and a sports surface that does not necessarily obeyclassical laws of friction.3.1.2.1 dynamic tractiontraction measured during relativesliding motion between the s
13、hoe and the surface.3.1.2.2 linear tractiontraction related to rectilinear mo-tion parallel to the surface.3.1.2.3 rotational tractiontraction related to rotationalmotion about an axis normal to the surface.3.1.2.4 static tractiontraction measured at the start ofrelative sliding motion between the s
14、hoe and the surface.3.1.3 traction ratioratio of the traction force or torque andthe normal force acting at the shoe-surface interface.3.1.3.1 dymamic traction ratio (Tk,Rk)linear or rotationaltraction ratio measured during constant velocity relative mo-tion between the shoes and the surface.1This t
15、est method is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F08 on SportsEquipment and Facilities and is the direct responsibility of Subcommittee F08.54 onAthletic Footwear.Current edition approved Dec. 1, 2004. Published December 2004.2Available from Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), 400 Commonwea
16、lthDr., Warrendale, PA 15096-0001.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.3.1.3.2 linear traction ratio (T)ratio of the force resistingrelative rectilinear motion of the shoe parallel to the surfaceand the normal force at the
17、 shoe-surface interface.3.1.3.3 rotational traction ratio (R)ratio of the torqueresisting relative rotational motion about an axis normal to thesurface and the normal force acting at the shoe-surfaceinterface.3.1.3.4 static traction ratio (Ts,Rs)linear or rotationaltraction ratio measured at the sta
18、rt of relative sliding motionbetween the shoe and the surface.4. Summary of Test Method4.1 A test shoe outsole or specimen is tested for tractioncharacteristics on the type of playing surface for which theshoe is intended.4.2 A shoe containing the outsole to be tested is pulled overa foot form, crea
19、ting a tight fit capable of properly transmittingforces through the shoe material to the outsole-playing surfaceinterface. Alternatively, an outsole material specimen can befastened to a mounting plate and tested in the same manner asan outsole on an intact shoe.4.3 The shoe on the footform is loade
20、d against the testsurface under a normal load specific to the sport category forwhich the shoe is intended. These normal loads, dependingupon the sport, will typically be higher than an athletes bodyweight. Normal loads, and the shoe axes along which tractionneeds are greatest, have been determined
21、by research. Some ofthe loading conditions that have relevance for traction testingof outsoles designed for particular sports are itemized by sportcategory in Table 1. Tests should be conducted at these normalloads or at a normal load of 1000 6 75 N unless otherwisespecified. The normal loads can be
22、 applied by means ofweights or hydraulic cylinders, springs in compression or otherappropriate means and transmitted through a shaft to which thefootform is securely attached.4.4 The normal load is distributed entirely beneath the distalhalf or the forefoot region of the outsole unless otherwisespec
23、ified. The proximal half or the rearfoot should not contactthe playing surface except as noted in Table 1. Alternatively, ifdeemed appropriate for the sports movement for which theshoe outsole design is intended, normal loads are distributeduniformly beneath the proximal half or the rearfoot portion
24、 ofthe outsole. If the shoe construction typically includes amidsole that provides cushioning, an appropriate midsoleshould be included in the test shoe. If the test involves aspecimen of outsole material fastened to a mounting plate, anequivalent midsole material of appropriate thickness is to bein
25、cluded between the mounting plate and the outsole material.A. Shoe under test, mounted on a footform.B. Surface under test.C. Guide rails with linear bearings or other means of maintaining rectilinear motion.D, E. Vertical shaft and bearing mounted carriage or other means of maintaining motion paral
26、lel to the plane of the shoe-surface interface.F. Weights, actuator or other means of applying a downward vertical force.G. Actuator or other means of applying a horizontal force.H. Force plate or other means of measuring vertical and horizontal forces.J. Velocity transducer.FIG. 1 Schematic Diagram
27、 of a Generic Device for Measuring Linear TractionF2333042NOTE 1The cushioning material helps to distribute normal loads moreuniformly between the outsole and the playing surface. The cushion doesnot reproduce the distribution of loads transmitted through the shoebottom to the outsole by the loaded
28、human foot, but does increase testrepeatability.4.5 For linear traction measurements, a linear actuator isused to overcome the static traction and produce relativerectilinear motion of the shoe and surface, parallel to the shoeoutsole-playing surface interface. The actuator may be pneu-matically, hy
29、draulically, or electrically driven. The distance ofrelative sliding motion between the shoe and the surface shallbe a minimum of 20 cm, unless the interacting surfaces deformor fail at a smaller distance.4.6 Sliding velocity shall be recorded and reported. Therecommended minimum sliding velocity is
30、 0.3 m s-1.NOTE 2Under some conditions, for example, cleated shoes on artifi-cial turf, spiked shoes on running tracks, it may not be possible to generatesliding at the recommended velocity. Under these circumstances, the forceand velocity developed should be recorded and dynamic traction coeffi-cie
31、nts should not be reported.4.7 For rotational traction measurements, the loaded shoeoutsole is rotated about the vertical shaft transmitting thenormal loads. The rotary motion may be applied manually, orby means of a rotary actuator. The minimum rotation appliedshall be 90 unless the interacting sur
32、faces deform or fail at aA. Shoe under test, mounted on a footform.B. Surface under test.D, E. Vertical shaft and bearings or other means of constraining rotation about the vertical axis parallel to the plane of the shoe-surface interface.F. Weights, actuator or other means of applying a downward ve
33、rtical force.G. Actuator or other means of applying a torque.H. Force plate or other means of measuring vertical force and torque about the vertical axis.J. Angular velocity transducer.FIG. 2 Schematic Diagram of a Generic Device for Measuring Rotational TractionTABLE 1 Distribution of Normal Loads
34、and Application of PullingForcesSport MovementNormalLoad (N)LoadDistributionDirectionof MotionRunningAPush-off 800 Forefoot Distal-proximalSprinting Push-off 1500 Forefoot Distal-proximalTennis,basketball,Bsoccer,CfootballCutting 2200 Forefoot Medial-lateralStopping 3000 Forefoot Proximal-distalShuf
35、flingD1300 Forefoot Medial-lateralStarting 1500 Forefoot Distal-proximalFootball Pushing 900 Forefoot Distal-proximalAerobic dance 500 Forefoot Medial-lateralGolf Downswing 600 Lateral outsole Medial-lateralAValiant, G. A., “FrictionSlippingTraction,” Sportverletzung Sportschaden,7,1993, pp. 171-178
36、.BValiant, G. A. and Eden, K. B., “Evaluating Basketball Shoe Design withGround Reaction Forces,” Proceedings of the Second North American Congresson Biomechanics, Chicago, August 24-28, 1992, pp. 271-272.CValiant, G. A., “Ground Reaction Forces Developed on Artificial Turf,” Scienceand Football, T.
37、 Reilly, A. Lees, and W. J. Murphy, Eds., E. friction; sports surface; tractionF2333045(a) Velocitytime curve(b) Horizontal forcetime curve(c) Normal forcetime curve(d) Traction Ratio, TNOTEDotted lines indicate region of approximately constant velocity for which average, maximum and minimum values
38、of T are calculated.FIG. 3 Example Data from a Linear Traction Measurement TrialF2333046APPENDIXES(Nonmandatory Information)X1. RATIONALEX1.1 The traction characteristics of athletic shoe-sportssurface interfaces do not obey the classical laws of Coulombfriction (1,2).3It is generally the case that
39、the shoe-surfaceinterface is neither smooth nor planar and that the forcesresisting relative motion between them include not onlyfriction, but also other forces due to mechanical interaction andinterpenetration of the shoe outsole and the surface. Also, thematerials used to manufacture shoe outsoles
40、 and surfaces arenon-linearly elastic and non-rigid, violating the assumptions ofclassical friction.X1.2 In contrast to classical theory, in which coefficients offriction between two surfaces are independent of normal force,sliding velocity, and contact area, traction between the shoeand the surface
41、 is not constant and may vary non-linearly withnormal force, sliding velocity and contact area. Unlike classicalfriction coefficients, dynamic traction ratios frequently exceed1.0. The moments opposing frictional resistance to rotation canrange from 20 to 60 Nm, increasing in an approximately linear
42、manner with increasing normal force.X1.3 The non-linearity of shoe-surface traction requiresthat measurements be made at loads and loading rates in therange that can be expected in vivo. Tests conducted at normalloads exceeding athlete body weights and for dynamic frictionmeasures at realistic slidi
43、ng velocities (3,4) are acceptablewhile those conducted at low normal loads (5,6) are lessappropriate. Test methods that rely on the assumptions ofCoulomb friction are not appropriate for measuring traction atthe athletic shoe-sport surface interface. Since many athleticactivities are played on surf
44、aces that can deform and move,such as natural turf and running trails, test methods shouldaccount for movement of soil or turf during testing and thesubsequent effects on the measurement of traction characteris-tics. A test method should also provide a procedure forevaluating traction in field condi
45、tions, including cleated foot-wear applications, and also in realistic laboratory conditions.X1.4 This test method attempts to address these issues bydescribing a means of measuring traction at appropriate loadsand loading rates that does not rely on classical laws of friction.X2. RELEVANCEX2.1 Enha
46、ncement of Performance:X2.1.1 The traction between a sport shoe and a playingsurface is an important determinant of human athletic perfor-mance. High traction characteristics of athletic shoe outsolesenhance athletes abilities to run fast, make quick starts andstops, and make rapid changes in runnin
47、g direction. Forexample, Krahenbuhl (7) reported that athletes wearing cleatedshoes could not run through an agility course as fast on naturalturf as on an artificial turf surface. He assumed that theartificial turf provided a greater gripping effect between shoeoutsole and turf. Morehouse and Morri
48、son also measured fasterperformance times on artificial compared to natural turf forfootball players completing an agility run, a 10-yard sprint, a40-yard sprint, and a blocking drill (8). The implications arethat the greater traction provided by artificial turf surfacesresults in performance enhanc
49、ement. Similarly, increased out-sole traction would have equivalent performance enhancementbenefits.X2.1.2 Many athletic movements result in the developmentof high horizontal forces between the shoe and the playingsurface. During the first few accelerating foot steps out ofstarting blocks, 100 m sprinters are developing backwarddirected horizontal force components exceeding 120 % of theirbody weight. Penetration of spikes into the track surfacecontributes to the high traction forces that prevent slip duringthis critical phase of the race.X2.1.3 Within the final 60
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