1、Designation: F 2534 06Standard Guide forVisually Estimating Oil Spill Thickness on Water1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 2534; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A numbe
2、r in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide provides information and criteria for estimat-ing the thickness of oil on water using only visual clues.1.2 This guide applies t
3、o oil-on-water and does not pertainto oil on land or other surfaces.1.3 This guide is generally applicable for all types of crudeoils and most petroleum products, under a variety of marine orfresh water conditions.1.4 The thickness values obtained using this guide are atbest estimates because the ap
4、pearance of oil on water may beaffected by a number of factors including oil type, sea state,visibility conditions, and weather.1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish
5、appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2F 1779 Practice for Reporting Visual Observations of Oil onWater3. Significance and Use3.1 Estimations of oil slick thickness are useful for:3.1
6、.1 Estimating amount (volume) of oil in an area,3.1.2 Positioning oil spill countermeasures in optimal loca-tions,3.1.3 Evaluating a spill situation,3.1.4 Estimating volume for legal or prosecution purposes,such as for an illegal discharge, and3.1.5 Developing spill control strategies.4. Summary of
7、Thickness Estimation Results4.1 Table 1 has been summarized from a variety of literaturesources (see Appendix X1).4.2 It should be noted that the only physical change inappearance that is reliable is the onset of rainbow colors, at 0.5to 3 m thickness. All other appearances vary with weather,visibil
8、ity conditions, look angle, oil type, water conditions andcolor, presence of waves, and the presence of other material onthe water surface. Therefore it is important to treat these asestimates and where possible give ranges of thicknesses. Ifvolume is to be calculated, it should also be given as a r
9、ange ofvalues.5. Summary5.1 The change in visual appearance of an oil slick on waterprovides a means to estimate oil slick thickness. Only theappearance of rainbow colors at 0.5 to 3 m is an indication ofslick thickness and only in the range noted. Other appearanceschange with the variables noted an
10、d thus should be used withcaution.6. Keywords6.1 oil observations; oil thickness; oil thickness estimation;oil visibility; slick thickness1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.16 o
11、n Surveillance and Tracking.Current edition approved June 1, 2006. Published June 2006.2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summar
12、y page onthe ASTM website.TABLE 1 Visibility Characteristics (Appearance)MinimumObservableThicknessMinimum Onset Thickness (m)Silvery RainbowDarkRainbowDarkATypicalRange0.08 0.1 0.5 3 30.05 to 0.2 0.1 to 0.3 0.2 to 3 3AThis color is sometimes called oil-like, dark colored, brown, black, ormetallic.1
13、Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.APPENDIX(Nonmandatory Information)X1. SUMMARY AND BACKGROUND OF SLICK THICKNESS DATAX1.1 IntroductionX1.1.1 An important tool for working with oil spills hasbeen the relationship between
14、 appearance and thickness. Littleresearch work has been done on the topic in recent timesbecause thickness charts were available for many years (Prac-tice F 1779) (Fingas et al., 1999) (1).3In fact, present thicknesscharts actually date from 1930 (Congress, 1930) (2).Itwasrecognized before 1930 that
15、 slicks on water had somewhatconsistent appearances. A series of experiments were con-ducted in the 1930s and resulted in charts that are still used.Only a few experiments have been done in recent years. ThisAppendix will summarize this development of slick appear-ance charts.X1.1.2 The early work m
16、ay not have accounted for severalfactors:X1.1.2.1 Effect of Slick HeterogeneityOils, especiallyheavier ones, do not form slicks of consistent thickness on thewater surface. Even visual examination shows a type of friedegg vertical profile. This effect is, however, not as relevant onlarger slicks and
17、 with less viscous products. Many slicks do notcover the entire area. The effect of surface tension is to pullsome oils together so that slicklets are formed rather than oneuniform slick.X1.1.2.2 Effect of EvaporationThe early experiments ig-nored the effect of evaporation on mass balance.X1.1.2.3 E
18、ffect of View AngleView angle is critical toobserving slicks on water, especially with respect to the sun.How this affects appearance thresholds is not fully explored.X1.1.2.4 Effect of Waves on the SurfaceThe appearance ofoil slicks on calm water versus that with different waveconditions may be dif
19、ferent.X1.1.2.5 Effect of Atmospheric and Viewing ConditionsFactor that may be important are haze and cloud cover. Hazestrongly reduces visibility. Slicks are often less visible in theabsence of a cloud cover. Glitter or reflection from the sea isknown to cause viewing problems.X1.1.2.6 Effect of Oi
20、l TypeDark oils are more visible onthe surface than gasoline or diesel fuel.X1.2 Slick VisibilityX1.2.1 Theoretical Approaches:X1.2.1.1 Horstein (1972) (3) reviewed theoretical ap-proaches and used interference phenomenon to correlate thethreshold of rainbow colors to slick thickness. The appearance
21、of rainbow colors is the result of constructive and destructiveinterference of light waves reflected from the air-oil interfacewith those reflected from the oil-water interface (Fingas et al.,1999) (1). The difference in optical path lengths for these twowaves depends on the refractive index of the
22、oil. The refractiveindices of given wavelengths results in different optical pathlengths. This difference can be given as:DL 5 2t2 sin2I!1/2(X1.1)where:DL = the difference in optical path length,t = the film thickness, = the refractive index of the film, andI = the angle of light incidence.X1.2.1.2
23、Horstein points out that if DL contains an evennumber of wavelengths, then maximum destructive interfer-ence will occur. Destructive interference occurs when lightwaves are in a phase alignment that they annul each other andthus the resulting amplitude of light is less. Constructiveinterference is t
24、he opposite. If DL contains an odd number ofwavelengths, then maximum constructive interference willoccur.X1.2.1.3 Then the maximum destructive interferences occurat:l5DL/x (X1.2)where:l = the wavelength under consideration, andx = an even integer such as 2, 4 etc.X1.2.1.4 The maximum constructive i
25、nterferences occur at:l52DL/x (X1.3)where:x = an odd integer such as 1, 3, 5, 7 etc.X1.2.1.5 Tables of constructive and destructive wavelengthsresulted in a color chart for visible oil as: thickness less that0.15 mno color apparent, thickness of 0.15 mwarm toneapparent, thickness of 0.2 to 0.9 mvari
26、ety of colors (forexample, rainbow), and for thickness greater than 0.9 mcolors of less purity, heading toward grey. The color generationby constructive and destructive interference provides the onlyphysical measure that provides a positive indication of thick-ness. Thus if the rainbow colors are se
27、en, then the thickness forthat area ranges from 0.2 to 0.9 m.X1.2.1.6 Horstein also calculated the differential reflectivityof oil and water. He calculated that the reflectivity of oil is0.041 and that of water is 0.021 at an incidence angle of 30.At 60 oil shows a reflectivity of 0.09 and water of
28、0.06; andat 75, oil has a reflectivity of 0.25 and water that of 0.21.These angles are calculated as the angle of light incidence from3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end ofthis standard.F2534062the vertical, and thus show that reflectivity increases as the
29、angle of viewing becomes less vertical. The reflectivity mayexplain the visibility of very thin films of oil (less than shownby coloration) on the water surface. This calculation demon-strates that viewing angle is important and that the greatestcontrast is seen from near vertical angles.X1.2.2 Lite
30、rature Review:X1.2.2.1 Literature results are summarized in Table X1.1(Fingas et al., 1999) (1).REFERENCES(1) Fingas, M. F., Brown, C. E., and Gamble, L., “The Visibility andDetectability of Oil Slicks and Oil Discharges on Water,” Proceedingsof the Twenty-Second Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program
31、TechnicalSeminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, 1999, pp. 865-886.(2) Congress, “Report on Oil-Pollution ExperimentsBehaviour of FuelOil on the Surface of the Sea,” hearings before the committee on riverand harbors, 71st Congress, 2nd Session, H.R. 10625, part I, 41-9,Washington, D.C., May 2,
32、 3 and 26, 1930.(3) Horstein, B., The Appearance and Visibility of Thin Oil Films onWater, Environmental Protection Agency Report, EPA-R2-72-039,Cincinnati, OH, 1972.(4) Allen, A. A., and Schlueter, R. S., Estimates of Surface PollutionResulting from Submarine Oil Seeps at Platform A and Coal Oil Po
33、int,General Research Corp., prepared for Santa Barbara County, SantaBarbara, CA, 1969.(5) API, Manual on Disposal of Refinery Wastes, Volume on LiquidWastes, American Petroleum Institute, 1969.(6) Horstein, B., “The Visibility of Oil-Water Discharges,” Proceedings ofthe 1973 International Oil Spill
34、Conference, American PetroleumInstitute, Washington, DC, 1973, pp. 91-99.(7) Parker, H. D., and Cormack, D., Evaluation of Infrared Line Scan(IRLS) and Side-looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) over Controlled OilSpills in the North Sea, Warren Spring Laboratory Report, 1979.(8) ITOPF (International Tanker
35、 Owners Pollution Federation), AerialObservation of Oil at Sea, International Tanker Owners PollutionFederation, London, U.K., 1981.(9) Schriel, R. C., “Operational Air Surveillance and Experiences in theNetherlands,” Proceedings of the 1987 International Oil Spill Confer-ence, American Petroleum In
36、stitute, Washington, DC, 1987, pp.129-136.(10) Duckworth, R., unpublished data report in MacDonald et al. below,1993.(11) Brown, H. M., Bittner, J. P., and Goodman, R. H., Visibility Limits ofSpilled Oil Sheens, Imperial Oil Internal Report, Calgary, Alberta,1995.(12) Canadian Coast Guard, “Appearan
37、ce and Thickness of an Oil Slick,”Section 3, Annex C, Operations Manual, Ottawa, Ontario, 1996.(13) Bonn Agreement, Guidelines for Oil Pollution Detection, Investiga-tion and Post Flight Analysis / Evaluation for Volume Estimation,2003.(14) Allen, A. A., and Schlueter, R. S., “Natural Oil Seepage at
38、 Coal OilPoint, Santa Barbara, California,” Science, 170, 1970, pp. 974-977.(15) Brown, H. M., Bittner, J. P., and Goodman, R. H., “The Limits ofVisibility of Spilled Oil Sheens,” Proceedings of the Second Inter-national Airborne Remote Sensing Conference and Exhibition, ERIMConferences, Ann Arbor,
39、Michigan, 1996, pp. III-327-III-333.(16) Brown, H. M., Baschuk, J. J., and Goodman, R. H., “The Limits ofVisibility of Spilled Oil Sheens,” Proceedings of the Twenty-FirstArctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, Environ-ment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, 1998, pp. 805-810.TABLE X1.1 Relatio
40、nships Between Appearance and Slick ThicknessAuthor Year Oil Type NumberHeight(m)ViewingAngleVisibility Thresholds (m)Minimum Silvery RainbowDarkeningColorsDullColorsDarkACongress (2) 1930 various incl. Bunker, fuel oil e 15 ship board oblique 0.1Allen et al. (4) 1969 Crude-Santa Barbara e multiple
41、ns ns 0.05 to 0.18 0.23 to 0.75 1 to 2.5 2.5 to 5.5API (5) 1969 general l ns ns 0.04 0.08 0.15 to 0.3 1 2Horstein (3) 1972 Arabian and Louisiana crudes e 20 1 to 2 various 5 to 50BAverage 0.09 0.1 0.6 0.9 2.7 8.5ADark is sometimes stated as true oil color, black, brown or darker colors or metallic.B
42、The Bonn agreement document has two thicknesses in addition, based on oil distribution: 50 to 200 for patchy, discontinuous distribution and 200 m for continuousslicks.Legend: e = experiment; I = literature; ns = not specified.F2534063(17) Hollinger, J. P., and Mennella, R. A., “Oil Spills: Measurem
43、ents ofTheir Distributions and Volumes by Multifrequency MicrowaveRadiometry,” Science, Vol 181, 1973, pp. 54-56.(18) MacDonald, I. R., Guinasso, Jr., N. L., Ackleson, S. G., Amos, J. F.,Duckworth, R., Sassen, R., and Brooks, J. M., “Natural Oil Slicks inthe Gulf of Mexico Visible from Space,” Journ
44、al of GeophysicalResearch, Vol 98, No. C9, 1993, pp. 16,351-16,364.ASTM International takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any item mentionedin this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any
45、such patent rights, and the riskof infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years andif not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are inv
46、ited either for revision of this standard or for additional standardsand should be addressed to ASTM International Headquarters. Your comments will receive careful consideration at a meeting of theresponsible technical committee, which you may attend. If you feel that your comments have not received
47、 a fair hearing you shouldmake your views known to the ASTM Committee on Standards, at the address shown below.This standard is copyrighted by ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959,United States. Individual reprints (single or multiple copies) of this standard may be obtained by contacting ASTM at the aboveaddress or at 610-832-9585 (phone), 610-832-9555 (fax), or serviceastm.org (e-mail); or through the ASTM website(www.astm.org).F2534064
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