1、BRITISH STANDARD BS4485-4: 1996 Water cooling towers Part 4: Code of practice for structural design and construction ICS 27.100:91.080BS4485-4:1996 This British Standard, havingbeen prepared under thedirection of the Engineering Sector Board, was published underthe authority of the Standards Board a
2、nd comes intoeffect on 15 August1996 BSI 07-1999 The following BSI references relate to the work on this standard: Committee reference B/525/15 Draft for comment92/17117 DC ISBN 0 580 25544 1 Committees responsible for this British Standard The preparation of this British Standard was entrusted to T
3、echnical Committee B/525/15, Cooling towers, upon which the following bodies were represented: Association of Consulting Engineers BEAMA Ltd. Concrete Society Electricity Association Engineering Employers Federation Federation of Civil Engineering Contractors Health and Safety Executive Hevac Associ
4、ation Industrial Water Society Institution of Chemical Engineers Institution of Civil Engineers Institution of Structural Engineers Process Plant Association Co-opted member Amendments issued since publication Amd. No. Date CommentsBS4485-4:1996 BSI 07-1999 i Contents Page Committees responsible Ins
5、ide front cover Foreword ii Section 1. General 1.1 Scope 1 1.2 References 1 1.3 Definitions 1 1.4 Symbols 3 1.5 Materials and workmanship 3 1.6 Packing support structures 6 1.7 Packings, water distribution systems, eliminators and cladding 8 1.8 Cooling tower fittings 9 1.9 Water retaining structure
6、s 9 1.10 Foundations and bases 10 Section 2. Hyperboloidal cooling towers (type1 towers) 2.1 Basis of design 11 2.2 Loading 11 2.3 Design considerations 12 2.4 Construction 18 Section 3. Mechanical draught towers (type2 towers) 3.1 Characteristic loads 20 3.2 Design considerations 20 Annex A (normat
7、ive) Recommendations for stress graded timber triangular section laths 21 Annex B (normative) Guidance on the use of plastics materials 23 Annex C (informative) Wind tunnel testing 24 Annex D (informative) Circumferential wind pressure distribution for hyperboloidal towers 24 Annex E (normative) Est
8、imation of resonant stresses 24 Annex F (informative) Derivation of natural frequencies of hyperboloidal towers 25 Figure 1 Pressure coefficient distribution for determination of wind loading 13 Figure 2 Arrangement of reinforcement trimming for openings in shells 17 Figure 3 Arrangement of reinforc
9、ement in the shell 18 Figure A.1 Splay knot 22 Figure A.2 Arris knot 22 Figure A.3 Face knot 22 Figure F.1 Typical finite element representation of cooling tower with column supports 26 Table 1 Dimensional deviations of precast components 4 Table 2 Coatings of metal components 7 Table 3 Determinatio
10、n of and 15 Table 4 Correction factors for stresses due to adjacent structures 16 Table 5 Minimum reinforcement in shell 16 Table A.1 Permissible knot size for a38mm 38mm lath 21 List of references 27BS4485-4:1996 ii BSI 07-1999 Foreword This Part of BS4485, which has been prepared by Subcommittee B
11、/525/15, Cooling towers, is concerned with the structural design and construction of natural draught and mechanical draught cooling towers. It is a revision of BS4485-4:1975, which is now withdrawn. As a code of practice, this British Standard takes the form of guidance and recommendations. It shoul
12、d not be quoted as if it were a specification and particular care should be taken to ensure that claims of compliance are not misleading. This Part of BS4485 contains three sections: a general section relating to all towers and two separate sections covering hyperboloidal shell natural draught tower
13、s and mechanical draught towers. The method of design of concrete shells of natural draught towers has been the subject of extensive changes. This edition differs from the previous 1975 edition as follows. a) Wind loadings are based on hourly mean winds, as derived in BS6399-2. b) An amplification f
14、actor to the wind loading is introduced to take account of the fluctuations in incident wind on the tower, and the effect on resulting stresses of tower resonant response in the incident wind. The factor is derived by an empirical equation, related to design wind speed and the natural frequency of t
15、he tower. It is derived from wind tunnel test results. c) Serviceability limit states are defined more fully and include an additional equation for buckling of the shell, and limitations to which uplift of foundations may be permitted under factored wind loading. d) Design is related to BS8110, incl
16、uding the shell support system. A British Standard does not purport to include all the necessary provisions of a contract. Users of British Standards are responsible for their correct application. Compliance with a British Standard does not of itself confer immunity from legal obligations. In partic
17、ular, attention is drawn to the Reservoirs Act 1975 1 and the need to ascertain at the time of the design of the cooling tower systems whether or not the cold water basin, especially if connected to other towers, comes within its scope. Summary of pages This document comprises a front cover, an insi
18、de front cover, pagesi andii, pages1 to28, an inside back cover and a back cover. This standard has been updated (see copyright date) and may have had amendments incorporated. This will be indicated in the amendment table on the inside front cover.BS4485-4:1996 BSI 07-1999 1 Section 1. General 1.1 S
19、cope This Part of BS4485 gives recommendations for the structural design and construction of water cooling towers of the following types: a) type1. Natural draught or assisted draught towers, in which the total air flow is wholly or partly induced by a reinforced concrete shell of hyperboloidal form
20、; b) type2. Mechanical draught towers, in which the total air flow is induced wholly by mechanical means within an enclosed structure. It applies only to those cooling towers constructed or erected on site and excludes factory assembled towers. In addition, matters relating to construction and workm
21、anship in concrete and other materials are dealt with only in so far as they are specific to cooling tower construction. Other items of construction are referred to in appropriate specifications. This code of practice covers the design of towers up to170m in height. However certain restrictions appl
22、y to formulae used for towers greater than120m in height. NOTEFor cooling towers of type1, shells similar in shape to the true hyperboloidal form may be considered. Where these other shapes are adopted then certain sections of this standard may not be strictly applicable. 1.2 References 1.2.1 Normat
23、ive references This Part of BS4485 incorporates, by dated or undated reference, provisions from other publications. These normative references are made at the appropriate places in the text and the cited publications are listed on pages27 and28. For dated references, only the edition cited applies:
24、any subsequent amendments to, or revisions of the cited publication apply to this Part of BS4485 only when incorporated in the reference by amendment or revision. For undated references, the latest edition of the cited publication applies, together with any amendments. 1.2.2 Informative references T
25、his Part of BS4485 refers to other publications that provide information or guidance. Editions of these publications current at the time of issue of this standard are listed on page28, but reference should be made to the latest editions. 1.3 Definitions For the purposes of this British Standard the
26、definitions in BS6100-4 apply together with the following. 1.3.1 air flow total quantity of air including associated water vapour flowing through the tower 1.3.2 arris knot knot which emerges on an arris (see Figure 5) 1.3.3 basin kerb top level of the retaining wall of the cold water basin NOTE 1Us
27、ually the datum point from which tower elevation points are measured. NOTE 2Basin kerb is also known as pond sill. 1.3.4 cell height distance from the basin kerb to the top of the fan deck, but not including the fan stack 1.3.5 cell length dimension parallel to the inlet louvred face 1.3.6 cell widt
28、h dimension at right angles to the cell length 1.3.7 circulating water flow quantity of hot water which flows into the tower 1.3.8 coarse screen grill located at the outlet of the cold water basin which retains large debris and prevents it from entering mechanical plant or pipework 1.3.9 cold water
29、basin device that underlies the tower to receive cooled water from the packing NOTECold water basin is also known as basin or pond. 1.3.10 column anchor device that attaches the tower structure to the foundation; it does not include the foundation bolt 1.3.11 distribution basin elevated basin which
30、distributes hot water over the tower packingBS4485-4:1996 2 BSI 07-1999 1.3.12 distribution header pipe or flume which delivers water from the inlet connection to lateral headers, troughs, flumes or distribution basins 1.3.13 distribution system those parts of a tower, beginning with the inlet conne
31、ction, which distribute the hot circulating water throughout the tower to the point where it contacts the air 1.3.14 drift eliminator system of baffles within the tower which reduces the quantity of entrained droplets of water in the outlet air 1.3.15 face knot knot on a face, other than a splay or
32、arris knot (seeFigure 6) 1.3.16 film packing arrangement of surfaces over which the water flows in a continuous film throughout the depth of the packing 1.3.17 louvres 1) Members installed in the wall of a type2 tower or at the entry to a cross flow packing, which direct air flow into the tower and
33、reduce blow-out of water from the tower. 2) Individual units forming the baffles of a drift eliminator. 1.3.18 nominal tower dimensions dimensions used to indicate the effective size of cells or cooling tower. In the horizontal plane these are the approximate width and length of packed areas, and in
34、 the vertical plane the height above the basin kerb level 1.3.19 packing material placed within the tower to increase heat and mass transfer between the circulating water and the air flowing through the tower NOTEPacking is also known as pack or filling. 1.3.20 packing support structure structure of
35、 beams and columns, generally in timber or concrete, which support the packing, distribution pipework or flumes and drift eliminator 1.3.21 ringbeam thickened, lowermost part of the shell immediately surmounting the shell support columns, spanning the column heads NOTERingbeam is also known as linte
36、l. 1.3.22 shell part of a type1 tower which induces air flow 1.3.23 shell support column inclined column or wall which spans the air intake opening and transmits the dead load of the shell, and any forces induced in it, to the foundation NOTEShell support column is also known as leg. 1.3.24 shell su
37、pport node junction between a pair of shell support columns and the ring beam 1.3.25 splash bar a small section lath, generally of rectangular or triangular cross section, located in a splash packing to initiate the formation of droplets 1.3.26 splash packing arrangement of horizontal laths or splas
38、h bars which promotes droplet formation in water falling through the packing 1.3.27 splay knot knot cut more or less parallel to its long axis so that the exposed section is elongated NOTEOn triangular laths the length of the knot will frequently extend across the width of the face. 1.3.28 spray noz
39、zle device which dispenses cooling water from the distribution pipework so that it is uniformly distributed over the packing 1.3.29 spray nozzle adaptor device incorporated in the distribution pipework which easily or securely fixes the spray nozzle in position 1.3.30 sump lowered portion of the col
40、d water basin floor for draining NOTESump is also known as basin sump or pond sump.BS4485-4:1996 BSI 07-1999 3 1.3.31 water loading circulating water flow expressed in quantity per unit plan area of the packing 1.4 Symbols For the purposes of this Part of BS4485 the following symbols apply. 1.5 Mate
41、rials and workmanship 1.5.1 Concrete 1.5.1.1 General The concrete should be a designed mix conforming to BS8110-1, subject to the recommendations in1.5.1.2 to1.5.1.5. 1.5.1.2 Cement Cement should conform to BS12 or BS4027. 1.5.1.3 Pulverized fuel ash (PFA) Pulverized fuel ash should conform to BS389
42、2-1 and should be used in accordance with3.3.5, 6.1.2 and6.2.4 of BS8110-1:1985. 1.5.1.4 Aggregates Fine and coarse aggregates from natural sources, which conform to BS882, should be used. Particular attention should be given to the selection of dense aggregates of low drying shrinkage, in order to
43、reduce adverse effects on strength, density, shrinkage, moisture movement, frost resistance or durability of the concrete. In cooling tower shells the maximum size of aggregates should not exceed C-5mm where C is the nominal specified cover to the reinforcement. A area of reinforcement C D dynamic c
44、orrection factor C G grouping correction factor C P, pressure coefficient at angle from incident wind direction E static modulus of elasticity f y steel characteristic strength G k characteristic dead load H height of tower h shell thickness K empirical factor (described in Annex E) k dynamic wind p
45、ressure constant N meridional stress resultant N ,g gust stress resultant at design gust speed N ,m mean stress resultant at hourly mean wind speed N ,r stress resultant from resonance of the shell due to wind turbulence N , absolute value of shear stress resultant n lowest natural frequency of towe
46、r q cr critical dynamic wind pressure q g dynamic gust wind pressure at throat q g,z dynamic wind pressure at design gust speed q m,z dynamic wind pressure at design mean wind speed q z dynamic wind pressure at height z R B radius at underside of ring beam R T throat radius S c fetch factor S d dire
47、ction factor S g,z gust wind speed factor S h topographic increment S m,z hourly mean wind speed factor S t turbulence factor T c fetch adjustment factor T t turbulence adjustment factor V g,z design gust speed at height z V m,z design mean wind speed at height z V s site wind speed V z wind speed a
48、t height z W k characteristic hourly mean wind load z height above ground Z T height of throat above underside of ring beam angular position measured from the incident wind direction I, G, F amplification factors for stress resultants circumferential compressive membrane stress meridional compressiv
49、e membrane stress ,cr circumferential critical buckling stress ,cr meridional critical buckling stress * B factor of safety against buckling 5 Poissons ratioBS4485-4:1996 4 BSI 07-1999 1.5.1.5 Admixtures If admixtures are used they should conform to BS5075. Appropriate production control measures should be applied to their use. 1.5.2 Reinforcement Reinforcement to concrete should conform to clause7 of BS8110-1:1985. 1.5.3 Prestressing tendons Prestressing tendons should conform to clause8 of BS8110-1:1985. 1.5
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