1、 METRICMIL-HDBK-799(AR)5 April 1996DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSEHANDBOOKFIRE CONTROL SYSTEMSGENERALThis handbook is for guidance only.Do not cite this document as a requirement.AMSC/NA FSC 12GPDISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.Thi d t t d ith F M k 4 0 4Provide
2、d by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-MIL-HDBK-799 (AR)iiFOREWORD1. This handbook is approved for use by the Department of the Army and is available for use byall Departments and Agencies of the Department of Defense.2. This handbook is for guidan
3、ce only. Do not cite this document as a requirement. If it is, thecontractor does not have to comply.3. This handbook was developed to provide guidance and general approaches to the develop-ment of fire control systems. In particular, the handbook has been prepared to aid the designers ofArmy fire c
4、ontrol equipment and to serve as a reference guide for all military and civilian person-nel who may be interested in the design aspects of such materiel. The guidance in this handbookis based on the fundamental parameters of the fire control problem and its solution. Primaryemphasis is placed on the
5、 systematic approach required in the design of present-day fire controlequipment and systems. This approach involves thorough analysis of the particular fire controlproblem at hand, establishment of the most suitable mathematical model, and computerizationand mechanization of the mathematical model.
6、4. This handbook was developed under the auspices of the US Army Materiel CommandsEngineering Design Handbook Program, which is under the direction of the US Army IndustrialEngineering Activity. Research Triangle Institute was the prime contractor for this handbookunder Contract No. DAAA09-86-D-0009
7、. The development of this handbook was guided by atechnical working group chaired by Ms. Robin Gullifer of the Fire Support Armament Center ofthe US Army Armament Research, Development, and Engineering Center.5. Beneficial comments (recommendations, additions, deletions) and any pertinent data which
8、may be of use in improving this document should be addressed to Commander, US Army Arma-ment Research, Development, and Engineering Center, ATTN: AMSTA-AR-EDE-S, PicatinnyArsenal, NJ 07806-5000, by using the Standardization Document Improvement Proposal (DDForm 1426) appearing at the end of this doc
9、ument or by letter.Thi d t t d ith F M k 4 0 4Provided by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-MIL-HDBK-799 (AR)iiiCONTENTSFOREWORD .iiLIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS xivLIST OF TABLES .xviiLIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS xviiiCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION TO FIRE C
10、ONTROL SYSTEMS1-1 DEFINITION AND NATURE OF FIRE CONTROL 1-11-1.1 GENERAL .1-11-1.2 DEFINITION AND GOALS OF FIRE CONTROL 1-11-1.3 SUMMARY OF FIRE CONTROL METHODS .1-21-1.3.1 Direct Fire Control 1-21-1.3.2 Indirect Fire Control .1-21-1.3.3 Geometry of Typical Fire Control Problem .1-31-1.4 CLASSIFICAT
11、ION OF FIRE CONTROL EQUIPMENT 1-41-1.5 APPLICATIONS OF MODERN FIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS 1-41-1.5.1 Surface-to-Surface 1-51-1.5.2 Surface-to-Air 1-61-1.5.3 Air-to-Surface 1-61-1.5.4 Air-to-Air .1-71-1.6 THE INPUT-OUTPUT (IO) CONCEPT 1-71-1.6.1 Primary Factors in Establishing Input-Output Relationships .1-
12、71-1.6.1.1 Factors Affecting the Projectile Path1-71-1.6.1.2 Target Motion With Respect to the Weapon .1-71-1.6.2 Secondary Factors in Establishing Input-Output Relationships 1-81-2 CHRONOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ARMY FIRE CONTROL 1-81-2.1 INTRODUCTION 1-81-2.2 PRE-19TH CENTURY FIRE CONTROL 1-81-2.2.1
13、 A Word on Nomenclature 1-81-2.2.2 Control of Weapons Prior to Firearms .1-91-2.2.3 Development and Control of Early Firearms 1-91-2.3 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE 19th CENTURY .1-91-2.3.1 Improvements in Weapons .1-91-2.3.2 Improvements in Fire Control 1-101-2.4 DEVELOPMENTS IN THE 20TH CENTURY THROUGH WORL
14、D WAR II 1-101-2.4.1 Field Artillery Fire Control Equipment 1-111-2.4.1.1 Instruments Used in Target Location .1-121-2.4.1.1.1 Binoculars 1-121-2.4.1.1.2 Magnetic Compass 1-121-2.4.1.1.3 Maps and Plotting Boards 1-121-2.4.1.1.4 Sound and Flash Ranging .1-131-2.4.1.1.5 Aiming Circles .1-131-2.4.1.1.6
15、 Battery Commanders Telescope .1-141-2.4.1.1.7 Optical Range Finders 1-141-2.4.1.2 Ballistic and Meteorological Data 1-151-2.4.1.3 Entering Elevation Data Into the Weapon .1-161-2.4.1.3.1 Gunners Quadrant .1-161-2.4.1.3.2 Elevation and Range Quadrants 1-171-2.4.1.4 Entering Azimuth Data Into the Wea
16、pon .1-171-2.4.1.5 Fuze Setters .1-17Provided by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-MIL-HDBK-799 (AR)iv1-2.4.1.6 Direct Fire Optical Instruments 1-171-2.4.2 Tank Fire Control Equipment 1-181-2.4.2.1 Sighting Equipment 1-181-2.4.2.2 Ranging Equipment
17、 .1-191-2.4.2.3 Stabilization Equipment .1-191-2.4.3 Air Defense Fire Control Equipment .1-191-2.4.3.1 Target Data .1-201-2.4.3.1.1 Target Angles and Rates .1-201-2.4.3.1.2 Target Illumination and Sound Location 1-201-2.4.3.1.3 Optical Range Finder 1-201-2.4.3.1.4 Early Radar 1-211-2.4.3.2 Mechanica
18、l Computers 1-211-2.4.3.3 Electrical Directors .1-221-2.4.3.4 Data Transmission 1-221-2.4.3.5 Weapon Laying .1-221-2.4.4 Small Arms Fire Control .1-231-2.4.4.1 Optical Sights 1-231-2.4.4.2 Active Infrared Night Sights 1-231-2.4.5 World War II Air-to-Ground and Air-to-Air Fire Control Development .1-
19、231-2.5 POST-WWII DEVELOPMENTS 1-241-2.5.1 General .1-241-2.5.2 Artillery Fire Control .1-251-2.5.2.1 Computational Systems 1-251-2.5.2.1.1 Graphical Firing Tables 1-261-2.5.2.1.2 T-29E2 Computer 1-271-2.5.2.1.3 Field Artillery Digital Automatic Computer (FADAC) .1-271-2.5.2.1.4 Battery Computer Sys
20、tem .1-271-2.5.2.1.5 Commercial Adaptations 1-281-2.5.2.2 Target Location 1-291-2.5.2.2.1 Laser Range Finders .1-291-2.5.2.2.2 Ground Laser Location Designator (GLLD) .1-291-2.5.2.2.3 The Fire Support Team Vehicle (FISTV) 1-301-2.5.2.2.4 Airborne Observation .1-301-2.5.2.3 Weapon Laying Equipment .1
21、-311-2.5.2.4 Howitzer Extended Life Program (HELP) .1-321-2.5.2.5 Howitzer Improvement Program (HIP) and the M109A6 1-321-2.5.2.6 Advanced Field Artillery System (AFAS) 1-331-2.5.3 Combat Vehicle Fire Control 1-331-2.5.3.1 M47 and M48 Tanks .1-341-2.5.3.2 M60A3 Tank .1-341-2.5.3.2.1 Ballistic Comput
22、er 1-351-2.5.3.2.2 Laser Range Finder .1-351-2.5.3.2.3 Tank Thermal Sight 1-361-2.5.3.3 M1 Tank 1-361-2.5.3.4 M2 Infantry Fighting Vehicle and M3 Cavalry Fighting Vehicle .1-381-2.5.4 Air Defense Fire Control Systems 1-391-2.5.4.1 Self-Propelled 40-mm .1-391-2.5.4.2 T33/M33 .1-401-2.5.4.3 M38 Skyswe
23、eper .1-401-2.5.4.4 T50 Raduster 1-411-2.5.4.5 Vigilante 1-411-2.5.4.6 Vulcan Air Defense System.1-41Provided by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-MIL-HDBK-799 (AR)v1-2.5.4.7 Gun Low-Altitude Air Defense System (GLAADS) 1-421-2.5.4.8 Product-Improv
24、ed Vulcan Air Defense System (PIVADS) 1-431-2.5.4.9 Division Air Defense System (DIVAD) 1-431-2.5.4.10 Forward Area Air Defense (FAAD) .1-471-2.5.5 Small Arms Fire Control .1-481-2.5.5.1 Optical Sights 1-491-2.5.5.2 Image Intensifier Night Sights .1-491-2.5.5.3 Infrared Night Sights 1-501-2.5.6 Airc
25、raft Fire Control 1-501-2.5.6.1 Aircraft Weaponization 1-511-2.5.6.2 Experimental Prototypes .1-531-2.5.6.2.1 Multiweapon Fire Control System (MWFCS) 1-531-2.5.6.2.2 Integrated Rocket Delivery Systems .1-541-2.5.6.2.3 Southeast Asia Multisensor and Armament System for Helicopter (SMASH) 1-541-2.5.6.
26、2.4 Aerial Artillery .1-551-2.5.6.2.5 Mast-Mounted Sight 1-551-2.5.6.3 Attack Helicopters 1-561-2.5.6.3.1 Cheyenne .1-561-2.5.6.3.2 Cobra .1-571-2.5.6.3.3 AH-64 Apache .1-581-2.5.6.3.4 Light Helicopter, Experimental (LHX) .1-591-2.5.6.4 Helicopter Air-to-Air Fire Control 1-601-2.5.7 Common Module Fi
27、re Control .1-631-2.6 CONCLUSIONS 1-631-3 NONTRADITIONAL MUNITIONS FIRE CONTROL 1-641-3.1 GUIDED PROJECTILES 1-641-3.2 MANEUVERING PROJECTILES 1-651-3.3 PRECISION-GUIDED WEAPONS 1-65REFERENCES 1-66BIBLIOGRAPHY .1-67CHAPTER 2THEORETICAL ASPECTS OF THE FIRE CONTROL PROBLEMAND ITS SOLUTION 2-0 LIST OF
28、SYMBOLS .2-12-1 INTRODUCTION 2-22-2 THE FIRE CONTROL PROBLEM .2-22-2.1 STATEMENT OF THE FIRE CONTROL PROBLEM .2-22-2.2 GENERALIZED FIRE CONTROL THEORY .2-32-2.2.1 Basic Concepts .2-32-2.2.2 The Geometrical Approach 2-32-2.2.3 Common Geometrical Factors 2-32-2.3 COORDINATE FRAMES FOR FIRE CONTROL .2-
29、42-2.3.1 Primary Coordinate Frames Used to State the Fire Control Problem .2-52-2.3.2 Coordinate Frames of Use in Data Handling and Computing .2-72-2.3.3 Effect of the Reference Coordinate Frame on the Prediction Angle 2-82-2.4 EXTERIOR BALLISTICS .2-102-2.4.1 The General Ballistic Equation .2-102-2
30、.4.2 Point Mass Equations 2-112-2.4.3 Curvature of the Trajectory 2-122-2.4.3.1 Gravity .2-14Provided by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-MIL-HDBK-799 (AR)vi2-2.4.3.2 Air Resistance .2-152-2.4.3.3 Drift .2-202-2.4.4 Effects and Sources of Jump .2-
31、222-2.4.5 Variations from Standard Conditions 2-222-2.4.5.1 Propellant Characteristics 2-232-2.4.5.2 Projectile Weight 2-232-2.4.5.3 Air Density 2-232-2.4.5.4 Air Temperature .2-232-2.4.5.5 Differences in Muzzle Velocity 2-232-2.4.5.6 Wind 2-242-2.4.5.7 Effects of Rotation of the Earth 2-242-2.4.5.8
32、 Nonrigidity of the Trajectory .2-252-2.5 EFFECT OF TARGET MOTION .2-252-2.6 THE PREDICTION ANGLE 2-262-2.7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN FIRE CONTROL FOR GUNS AND ROCKETS 2-282-3 SOLUTION OF THE FIRE CONTROL PROBLEM .2-282-3.1 GENERAL .2-282-3.2 SIGHTING, RANGING, AND TRACKING .2-292-3.2.1 General .2-292-3.2
33、.2 Sighting .2-292-3.2.3 Ranging 2-312-3.2.4 Tracking .2-312-3.3 COMPUTATION OF FIRE CONTROL SOLUTION 2-322-3.3.1 Weapon and Target Both Stationary 2-322-3.3.2 Weapon Stationary and Target Moving .2-322-3.3.3 Weapon Moving and Target Stationary .2-352-3.3.4 Weapon and Target Both Moving 2-352-3.4 SE
34、NSOR NOISE COMPENSATION .2-362-3.5 APPLICATION OF FIRE CONTROL SOLUTION .2-36REFERENCES 2-37BIBLIOGRAPHY .2-38CHAPTER 3FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF FIRE CONTROL EQUIPMENT3-1 INTRODUCTION 3-13-2 FIRE CONTROL FUNCTIONS 3-23-2.1 ACQUISITION AND TRACKING SYSTEM 3-33-2.1.1 Acquisition Element 3-33-2.1.2 Tracki
35、ng Element 3-33-2.2 FIRE CONTROL COMPUTING SYSTEM .3-43-2.2.1 Ballistic Data Element 3-43-2.2.2 Predicting Element 3-43-2.2.3 Ballistic Correction Element3-53-2.2.4 Navigational Element 3-53-2.3 WEAPON POINTING SYSTEM 3-53-2.3.1 Compensating Element .3-53-2.3.2 Pointing Element 3-53-2.4 COMMAND, CON
36、TROL, AND COMMUNICATING ELEMENT 3-63-2.5 DATA-TRANSMITTING ELEMENTS 3-63-2.6 FUZE SETTING ELEMENT .3-63-3 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE INTEGRATION OF FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS INTO FIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS 3-63-3.1 COMBAT VEHICLE 3-63-3.2 AIR DEFENSE .3-8Provided by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networki
37、ng permitted without license from IHS-,-,-MIL-HDBK-799 (AR)vii3-3.3 FIELD ARTILLERY 3-103-3.4 AIRCRAFT 3-123-3.5 SMALL ARMS .3-153-4 COMPATIBILITY PROBLEMS OF VARIOUS TYPES OF OPERATING ELEMENTS 3-163-4.1 GENERAL PRINCIPLES 3-163-4.2 FACTORS REQUIRING PARTICULAR ATTENTION 3-163-4.2.1 Relative Accura
38、cies 3-173-4.2.2 Relative Speeds of Operation .3-173-4.2.3 Relative Ranges of Operation .3-173-4.2.4 Types of Associated Equipment .3-173-4.2.5 Interconnecting Devices 3-17REFERENCES 3-17CHAPTER 4DESIGN PHILOSOPHY4-0 LIST OF SYMBOLS .4-14-1 INTRODUCTION 4-94-2 DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS AND
39、SIMULATIONS .4-104-2.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .4-104-2.2 MODELS FOR IDEALIZED SYSTEMS .4-104-2.3 MODELS FOR OPTIMUM SYSTEMS 4-114-2.4 MODELS FOR PRACTICAL SYSTEMS .4-114-2.5 APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS TO THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICAL MODELS .4-114-2.5.1 Information to be Computed .4-124-2.5.2 Degree of So
40、phistication Necessary .4-124-2.5.3 Accuracy Required 4-124-2.5.4 Solution Time 4-124-2.5.5 Memory Requirements 4-124-2.6 MODEL VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION .4-124-2.7 EXAMPLES OF MODELS 4-134-2.7.1 HITPRO (Derived from Hit Probability) .4-134-2.7.2 The Air Defense Modern Gun Effectiveness Model (MGE
41、M) .4-144-2.7.3 ARTOAR (Derived from Air-to-Air) .4-154-2.8 CONCLUSIONS .4-174-3 FILTERING AND PREDICTION .4-174-3.1 DECISION MAKING UNDER UNCERTAINTY .4-184-3.1.1 The Method of Maximum Likelihood Estimation .4-194-3.1.2 The Method of Maximum A Posteriori Probability Estimation .4-204-3.1.3 Statisti
42、cal Decision Theory 4-204-3.1.4 Statistical Decision Theory: A Game-Theoretic Approach .4-214-3.2 DYNAMIC MODELS FOR UNCERTAIN DYNAMIC SYSTEMS .4-214-3.3 STATE VARIABLE MODELS AND ALGORITHMS USED FOR FILTERING AND PREDICTION IN FIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS 4-244-3.3.1 Linear Kalman Filters 4-284-3.3.2 Exten
43、ded Kalman Filters .4-304-3.3.3 Robust Linear Kalman Filters4-314-4 ACCURACY CONSIDERATIONS AND ANALYSIS 4-344-4.1 INTRODUCTION 4-344-4.1.1 Systematic and Random Errors 4-354-4.1.2 Engagement Hit Probability 4-374-4.1.3 An Outline of the Procedure Used to Design a Fire Control System of PrescribedAc
44、curacy 4-37Provided by IHSNot for ResaleNo reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS-,-,-MIL-HDBK-799 (AR)viii4-4.2 HIT AND KILL PROBABILITY THEORY 4-384-4.2.1 Kill Probability .4-394-4.2.2 Probability of Hit .4-414-4.2.2.1 Single-Shot Hit Probability 4-434-4.2.2.2 Engagement Hit
45、 Probability 4-464-4.3 ERROR ANALYSIS IN FIRE CONTROL SYSTEMS .4-514-4.3.1 Introduction .4-514-4.3.2 Analysis of Error Propagation in Systems Described by Equations Other ThanDifferential Equations .4-524-4.3.2.1 Analysis of Random Errors 4-624-4.3.2.2 Determination of Operating Points 4-644-4.3.3 I
46、llustrative Examples for a System Described by Equations Other Than Differential Equations 4-664-4.3.4 Analysis of Error Propagation in Systems Described by Differential Equations .4-664-4.3.4.1 Impulse-Response Approach .4-674-4.3.4.2 Transfer Function Approach .4-744-4.3.4.3 Illustrative Example o
47、f an Error Analysis for a System Described by Nonlinear Differential Equations 4-834-4.3.4.4 Discrete Time and Sampled Data Systems .4-894-4.3.4.4.1 Use of z-Transform 4-914-4.3.4.4.2 PSD of Sampled Data Systems .4-944-4.4 WEAPON SYSTEM ERRORS THAT ARE BEYOND THE CONTROL OF THE FIRE CONTROL SYSTEM D
48、ESIGNER .4-964-4.4.1 Errors Associated With the Input Portion of a Weapon System 4-964-4.4.1.1 Radar Glint Noise .4-974-4.4.1.2 Radar Amplitude Noise .4-974-4.4.1.3 Video Trackers 4-984-4.4.1.4 Laser Range Finder 4-984-4.4.1.5 Target Motions .4-994-4.4.1.6 Tracking Noise 4-994-4.4.2 Errors Associate
49、d With the Output Portion of a Weapon System .4-1014-4.5 WEAPON SYSTEM ERRORS THAT ARE UNDER THE CONTROL OF THE FIRE CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGNER .4-1014-4.5.1 Errors in Digital Computers .4-1024-4.5.1.1 Dynamic Errors .4-1024-4.5.1.2 Static Errors 4-1034-4.5.2 Errors in Analog Components 4-1034-4.5.2.1 Mechanical Elements 4-1034-4.5.2.2 Servos 4-1044-4.5.2.3 Potentiometers .4-1044-4.5.2.4 Resolvers and Synchros 4-1044-4.5.2.5 Tachometers .4-1044-4.5
