1、_SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirely voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising theref
2、rom, is the sole responsibility of the user.” SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be revised, reaffirmed, stabilized, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions.Copyright 2014 SAE International All rights reserved. No part of this pub
3、lication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER: Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) Tel: +1 724-776-4970
4、(outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org SAE WEB ADDRESS: http:/www.sae.orgSAE values your input. To provide feedback on this Technical Report, please visit http:/www.sae.org/technical/standards/AIR1106BAEROSPACEINFORMATION REPORT AIR1106 REV. BIssued 1970-06 Reaffirmed 2004-01
5、Revised 2014-05 Superseding AIR1106A (R) Some Factors Affecting Visibility of Aircraft Navigation and Anticollision Lights RATIONALEInformation contained herein has been expanded from AIR1106A to include the use of Light Emitting Diode technology and more reference documents were added. FOREWORDThis
6、 SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is divided into four sections for two categories of readers. Sections 1 through 3 are primarily for the user of aircraft, whether as a pilot, crewmember, or in any other capacity, who does not need the more technical aspects of navigation and anticollision lig
7、hting, and its visibility. Section 4, on the other hand, is supplementary to Sections 1 through 3, primarily for the engineering designer, whether of aircraft or of aircraft exterior lighting, who needs to know certain technical aspects in greater depth, and/or needs the information to make importan
8、t engineering decisions relevant to such lighting. 1. SCOPE The scope of this SAE Aerospace Information Report (AIR) is to discuss factors affecting visibility of aircraft navigation and anticollision lights, enabling those concerned with their use to have a better technical understanding of such fa
9、ctors, and to aid in exercising appropriate judgment in the many possible flight eventualities. 2. APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS The following publications form a part of this document to the extent specified herein. The latest issue of SAE publications shall apply. The applicable issue of other publications
10、 shall be the issue in effect on the date of the purchase order. In the event of conflict between the text of this document and references cited herein, the text of this document takes precedence. Nothing in this document, however, supersedes applicable laws and regulations unless a specific exempti
11、on has been obtained. SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1106B Page 2 of 37 2.1 SAE Publications Available from SAE International, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) or 724-776-4970 (outside USA), www.sae.org.NOTE: The numbers associated with each referenc
12、e document listed below are used for their identification in Section 3. 1. AS8037, Minimum Performance Standard for Aircraft Position Lights 2. AS8017, Minimum Performance Standard for Anticollision Light Systems 3. ARP991, Position and Anticollision Lights - Turbine Powered Fixed-Wing Aircraft 4. A
13、IR1276, Aircraft Flashtube Anticollision Lighting Systems 2.2 FAA Publications Available from Federal Aviation Administration, 800 Independence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20591, Tel: 866-835-5322, www.faa.gov.TSO-C30c Technical Standard Order, Aircraft Position Lights TSO-C96 Technical Standard Orde
14、r, Anticollision Light Systems AC20-74 Aircraft Position Lights and Anticollision Light Measurements Code of Federal Requlations Title 14, Parts 23, 25, 27, 29 and 121. Some applicable sections may include, but are not limited to the following: 2-.1385 Position light system installation 2-.1387 Posi
15、tion light system dihedral angles 2-.1389 Position light distribution and intensities 2-.1391 Minimum intensities in the horizontal plane of forward and rear position lights 2-.1393 Minimum intensities in any vertical plane of forward and rear position lights 2-.1395 Maximum intensities in overlappi
16、ng beams of forward and rear position lights 2-.1397 Color Specifications 2-.1401 Anticollision Light System 2.3 Other Publications NOTE: The numbers associated with each reference document listed below are used for their identification in Section 3. 5. Reference Data for Radio Engineering, Sixth Ed
17、ition, Second Printing, Howard W. Sams Co., Inc., ITT, Indianapolis, 1977.6. Examination of Aircraft Interior Emergency Lighting in a Postcrash Fire Environment, James Demaree, DOT/FAA/CT-82-55, Final Report, Atlantic City, June 1982. 7. Handbook of Optics, Walter G. Driscoll, Editor, William Vaugha
18、n, Associate Editor, Sponsored by Optical Society of America, McGraw-Hill, p. 12-10, New York, NY, 1989. SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1106B Page 3 of 37 8. IES Lighting Handbook, Reference Volume, John E. Kaufman, Editor, Jack F. Christensen, Associate Editor, Illuminating Engineering Society of North Ameri
19、ca, p. 3-5, New York, 1984. 9. Handbook of Optics, p. 12-21. 10. IES Lighting Handbook, Reference Volume, p. 3-8. 11. Handbook of Optics, p. 12-32. 12. Handbook of Optics, p. 12-15. 13. Handbook of Optics, p. 12-10. 14. Handbook of Optics, p. 1-8. 15. IES Lighting Handbook, Reference Volume, p. 1-6.
20、 16. Aids to Navigation Manual, CG222, U.S. Coast Guard. NOTE: The numbers associated with each reference document listed below are used for their identification in Section 4. 1. Handbook of Optics, p. 12-26. 2. Handbook of Optics, p. 12-27. 3. Handbook of Optics, p. 12-22. 4. IES Lighting Handbook,
21、 Reference Volume, p. 5-12, 5-13. 5. Visibility of Signal Lights, J. D. Lash and G. F. Prideau, Illuminating Engineering, November, 1943. 6. The Perception of Lights of Short Duration at Their Range Limits, A. Blondel and J. Rey, Transactions of the Illuminating Engineering Society, VII, 625, Novemb
22、er, 1912. This is an English translation of two articles in the J.de Phy. et Radium, Vol. 1, Series 5, pp. 530, 643, 1911. 7. Effective Intensity of Flashing Lights, Theodore H. Projector, Illuminating Engineering, LII, 12, 630, December, 1957. 8. Computation of the Effective Intensity of Flashing L
23、ights, Charles A. Douglas, Illuminating Engineering, LII, 12, 641, December, 1957. 9. IES Guide for Calculating the Effective Intensity of Flashing Signal Lights, Task Group of Aviation Committee, Illuminating Engineering, 747, November, 1964. 10. IES Guide, p. 749. 11. Projector, p. 636. 12. IES Gu
24、ide, p. 749. 13. Projector, p. 638. 14. Projector, pp. 638-639. 15. Need for a Low Cost Short-Range Collision Prevention Device, Ted Linnert, National Transportation Safety Board Hearing into the Mid-Air Collision Problem, Airline Pilots Association, International, Washington, DC November 1969. 16.
25、IES Lighting Handbook, Reference Volume, p. 3-23. SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1106B Page 4 of 37 17. The Role of Exterior Lights in Mid-Air Collision Prevention, T. H. Projector, Contract No. FAA/BRD-127, Final Report No. 4, July, 1962. 18. Human Engineering Tests of Selected Aircraft Anticollision Light S
26、ystems, John E. Robinson, Contract ND as 57-5416, Contract No. as 59-6008. 19. ISO 11664-1:2007(E)/CIE S 014-1/E:2007: Joint ISO/CIE Standard: Colorimetry - Part 1: CIE Standard Colorimetric Observers,“ http:/cie.co.at/index.php?i_ca_id=483 20. General Practice for the Measurement of Flashing Lights
27、 by Miller, C. C.; Davis, W. L.; Lee, S. E.; Gibbons, R. E.; Ohno, Y. 21. Analysis on Effective Intensity of Flashing Lights and Modification of Allard Method by Y. Ohno, D. Couzin. 22. Modified Allard Method for Effective Intensity of Flashing Lights by Y. Ohno, D. Couzin. 23. Physical Measurement
28、of Flashing Lights - Now and Then by Y. Ohno. 2.4 Military Publications Navy: MIL-L-006730 Lighting Equipment Exterior, Aircraft (General requirements for) Air Force: MIL-L-6503H Lighting Equipment, Aircraft Specification for Installation of 3. DISCUSSION Visibility of a light signal is determined b
29、y the amount of light arriving at the observers eye through a medium or media of given conditions. In general, visibility will be greater when more illumination arrives at the observers eye. This implies a brighter light is more visible than a less bright light. However, as will become evident in th
30、e following discussion, higher brightness levels may not be necessary or desirable because of other factors affecting visibility. This seeming contradiction will become more clear after reading the following sections. It is also a goal of this document to provide a better understanding of what facto
31、rs affect visibility and what judgments need to be considered before any action is taken regarding the selection of a light source. The factors of practical importance to visibility of aircraft navigation and anticollision lights fall into three major categories:(1) factors due to the lights; (2) fa
32、ctors due to the observer; and (3) factors due to the medium or media between the observer and the lights. Without regard to their order of importance, they can be listed as follows: a. Light Source Factors: (1) FAA and Customer Requirements for navigation and anticollision lights (2) Intensity of t
33、he light source (and flash duration for ACLs) in the direction of the observer (3) Size of the light source (4) Color of the light source b. Observer Factors: (1) Visual capabilities of the observer (2) Visual thresholds of the observer (3) Observers state of visual adaptation (4) Effect of retinal
34、location with regards to the impinging light image SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1106B Page 5 of 37 (5) Effect of empty field myopia (6) Observer alertness and search habits (7) Observer distraction and fatigue c. Media Factors: (1) Effect of distance between the observer and the light source (2) Atmospheric
35、 conditions and transmissivity (3) Estimating visibility threshold ranges as a function of atmospheric conditions (4) Location, size, and optical quality of cockpit windows (5) Background luminance (6) Other lights in the background (7) Flashing versus steady-burning light sources for distance 3.1 L
36、ight Source Factors Definition of which lights on an aircraft are “navigation lights“ and which are “anticollision lights,“ and their required characteristics, are summarized. 3.1.1 Aircraft Navigation Lights Navigation lights are alternatively designated as “position lights.“ They consist of: red l
37、ights on the left wing tip; green lights on the right wing tip; and white lights on the tail of the aircraft, or more recently on the trailing edge of each wing tip.These constitute the basic navigation lighting system, and are required for nighttime operations.1The intensities of the red and green
38、lights in the forward direction range from 40 cd as the minimum CFR requirement, to more than 300 cd in some cases. It is the practice to use dual light sources in position lights for redundancy on commercial aircraft. Placing the white taillight on the trailing edge of the wing tips, or on the outb
39、oard trailing edges of the horizontal stabilizer,has two advantages: it makes maintenance easier, and provides more attitude information when viewed from the rear. 3.1.2 Anticollision Lights2-4Anticollision lights are flashing lights generally of much higher intensity than navigation lights. They ma
40、y be located on the top of the vertical fin, top and bottom of the fuselage or on the wing tips. Anticollision lights are generally either capacitordischarge (strobe) lights, rotating beacons, or electrically flashed incandescent lamps or other light sources (such as LEDs). Federal Aviation Regulati
41、ons (FARs) require a minimum of 400 cd of “effective intensity“ or 100 cd of either red or white light in the horizontal plane. Vertical coverage is 30 degrees above and below the horizontal plane for rotary wing aircraft, and 75 degrees above and below the horizontal plane for fixed wing aircraft.
42、The intensity and configuration required depends on the date of certification of the airplane. The frequency of flashing can range from 40 to 100 flashes per minute (0.6 to 1.5 flashes per second). Strobe flashes typically have a flash duration of approximately 1 ms (or longer if other light sources
43、 such as LEDs are used). Many aircraft have red flashing lights on the top and bottom of the fuselage, with white flashing lights on the wingtips. Effective intensities can range from 100 to over 4000 cd. Placing the white flashing lights on the wingtips may reduce problems resulting from reflection
44、s and/or backscatter that can interfere with crew vision. However, care must be given when placing the ACLs under the same lens as the Position Lights on the wingtips because these lenses are typically thin to match the wingtip profile. This in itself may produce unwanted reflections and/or backscat
45、ter.SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR1106B Page 6 of 37 3.1.3 Sources of Requirements The sources of the minimum requirements for position and anticollision lighting for the three categories of aircraft are summarized as follows: a. General Aviation: Applicable CFRs (see 2.2) (1) Fixed Wing: Part 23 (2) Helicop
46、ters: Anticollision lights for helicopters are red flashing lights with a minimum of 150 cd in the horizontal plane, falling off to 15 cd at 30 degrees above and below the horizontal; Part 27 (3) Operating Requirements, Nighttime: Part 91 b. Commercial: Applicable CFRs (see 2.2) (1) Fixed Wing: Part
47、 25 (2) Transport Helicopters: Part 29 (3) Operating Requirements, Nighttime: Part 121 c. Military: (1) Navy: MIL-L-006730 (2) Air Force: MIL-L-6503H (3) Army: MIL-L-6503H International standardization is attempted through documents published for civil aviation by the ICAO, and for military aviation
48、 by NATO. Although military aircraft have many of the same lighting requirements as general aviation or commercial aircraft, there are additional special lights for specific military requirements. There are differences in intensity distribution requirements as well for the position and anticollision
49、 lights, which are given in the above documents. Observations at a large airport at nighttime show there is considerable variety in the mechanization of the various basic requirements. From small to large aircraft, and even within a fleet of the same airline, differences are seen that relate to each model of aircraft. In all cases, however, at least the minimum requirements are satisfied. 3.2 Observer Factors Many important factors arise in t
