1、_ SAE Technical Standards Board Rules provide that: “This report is published by SAE to advance the state of technical and engineering sciences. The use of this report is entirely voluntary, and its applicability and suitability for any particular use, including any patent infringement arising there
2、from, is the sole responsibility of the user.” SAE reviews each technical report at least every five years at which time it may be revised, reaffirmed, stabilized, or cancelled. SAE invites your written comments and suggestions. Copyright 2013 SAE International All rights reserved. No part of this p
3、ublication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of SAE. TO PLACE A DOCUMENT ORDER: Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) Tel: +1 724-776-497
4、0 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org SAE WEB ADDRESS: http:/www.sae.orgSAE values your input. To provide feedback on this Technical Report, please visit http:/www.sae.org/technical/standards/AIR5699AEROSPACEINFORMATION REPORT AIR5699Issued 2007-11 Reaffirmed 2013-10 A Guid
5、e for the Damaging Effects of Tire and Wheel Failures RATIONALE AIR5699 has been reaffirmed to comply with the SAE five-year review policy. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. SCOPE 3 2. REFERENCES 3 2.1 Applicable Documents 3 2.1.1 SAE Publications. 3 2.2 FAA/JAA/EASA Documents 3 2.3 Other References 4 3. REGULAT
6、ION HISTORY AND INDUSTRY INITIATIVES 4 3.1 Rulemaking and Requirements Changes Pertaining to Tire and Wheel Threats. 4 3.1.1 Regulation Changes . 4 3.1.2 Industry Initiatives . 5 3.1.3 JAA TGM/25/08. 5 4. IN-SERVICE OPERATIONAL DATA 5 4.1 NTSB Data 5 4.2 Analysis of NTSB Data . 8 5. OEM COLLECTED DA
7、TA. 8 5.1 Major Aircraft Manufacturer Provided Database 8 5.2 Other Data. 11 6. DISCUSSIONS CONCERNING THE DATA. 11 6.1 NTSB and Aircraft Manufacturer Data Grouped Together . 11 6.2 Analysis of Mitigating Activity 11 6.3 Conclusions and Recommendations 12 7. NOTES 12 7.1 Key Words. 12 7.2 Acronyms 1
8、3 FIGURE 1 NTSB WHEEL/TIRE EVENTS VS QUANTITY OF AIRCRAFT BY DECADE 6 FIGURE 2 DISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS BY CAUSE . 7 FIGURE 3 CRITICALITY DISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS . 7 FIGURE 4 NTSB EVENTS BY FLIGHT PHASE 8 FIGURE 5 CAUSE DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURER DATA . 9 FIGURE 6 CRITICALITY DISTRIBUTION O
9、F MANUFACTURER DATA . 9 FIGURE 7 CRITICALITY OF MANUFACTURER DATA TIRE TREAD EVENTS 10 FIGURE 8 CRITICALITY ASSESSMENT OF MANUFACTURER DATA TIRE PRESSURE EVENTS. 10 FIGURE 9 CRITICALITY ASSESSMENT OF MANUFACTURER DATA WHEEL EVENTS. 11 FIGURE 10 CAUSE DISTRIBUTION FOR ALL DATA COLLECTED 12 TABLE 1 NT
10、SB EVENT DAMAGE DATA 5 TABLE 2 EVENTS PER AIRCRAFT IN SERVICE. 6 TABLE 3 MITIGATION METHOD OF NTSB EVENTS 8 SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5699 Page 2 of 13_ 1. SCOPE Consideration for the damaging effects to aircraft from the failure of wheels and tires should be evaluated. This document discusses the types
11、of problems in-service aircraft have experienced and methodology in place to assist the designers when evaluating threats for new aircraft design. The purpose of this document is to provide a history of in-service problems, provide a historical summary of the design improvements made to wheels and t
12、ires during the past 40 years and to offer methodology which has been used to help designers assess the threat to ensure the functionality of systems and equipment located in and around the landing gear and in wheel wells. 2. REFERENCES 2.1 Applicable Documents The following publications form a part
13、 of this document to the extent specified herein. The latest issue of SAE publications shall apply. The applicable issue of other publications shall be the issue in effect on the date of the purchase order. In the event of conflict between the text of this document and references cited herein, the t
14、ext of this document takes precedence. Nothing in this document, however, supersedes applicable laws and regulations unless a specific exemption has been obtained. 2.1.1 SAE Publications Available from SAE International, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, Tel: 877-606-7323 (inside US
15、A and Canada) or 724-776-4970 (outside USA), www.sae.org. AS1241 Fire Resistant Phosphate Ester Hydraulic Fluid for Aircraft ARP4102/3 Flight Deck Tire Pressure Monitoring System (TPMS) ARP4752 Aerospace - Design and Installation of Commercial Transport Aircraft Hydraulic Systems AS4833 Aircraft New
16、 Tire Standard - Bias and Radial ARP4834 Aircraft Tire Retreading Practice - Bias and Radial AS5440 Hydraulic Systems, Aircraft, Design and Installation Requirements for AIR5451 A Guide to Landing Gear System Integration AIR5697 Aerospace Landing Gear - FAA Regulatory History - Airplane Wheels, Tire
17、s, and Brakes 2.2 FAA/JAA/EASA Documents AC documents are available from the FAA and can be found online at http:/rgl.faa.gov. AC 20-97B Aircraft Tire Maintenance and Operational Practices, dated 18 April 2005 AC 25-7A Flight Test Guide for Certification of Transport Category Airplanes, Change 1, da
18、ted 3 June 1999 AC 25-22 Certification of Transport Airplane Mechanical Systems, dated 14 March 2000 AC 25.491-1 Taxi, Takeoff and Landing Roll Design Loads, dated 20 October 2000 AC 25.735-1 Brakes and Braking Systems Certification Tests and Analysis, dated 10 April 2002 SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5699 P
19、age 3 of 13_ AC 25.1435-1 Hydraulic System Certification Tests and Analysis, dated 21 May 2001 AC 145-4A Inspection, Retread, Repair, and Alterations of Aircraft Tires, dated 10 July 2006 TGM/25/08 JAA Temporary Guidance Material TGM/25/08 Wheel and Tire Failure Model, issue 2, dated 7 February 2001
20、 TSO - C26d Aircraft Wheels and Wheel-Brake Assemblies, with Addendum, dated 14 Oct 2004 TSO - C62e Aircraft tires, dated 29 September 2006 TSO - C135 Transport Airplane Wheels and Wheel and Brake Assemblies, dated 2 May 2002 2.3 Other References Material related to this subject was presented during
21、 SAE A-5 panel meetings from October 2003 through October 2006. Most of the data in this report is from the presentations from the panel meetings. 3. REGULATION HISTORY AND INDUSTRY INITIATIVES 3.1 Rulemaking and Requirements Changes Pertaining to Tire and Wheel Threats 3.1.1 Regulation Changes Docu
22、ment AIR5697 provides details about all the regulation changes pertaining to aircraft landing gear systems and equipment. Below is a list of the most pertinent changes for wheels and tires: 1974: Order 8100.8 requires fuse plug demonstration during RTO testing. Same requirements in AC 25-7 (1986) 19
23、79: TSO-C26c Wheels Rev B was issued during 2005 1990: Amdt 25-72 revised 25.733(c)(1) to add a 1.07 factor for tire load ratings 2002: Amdt 25-107; Amended 25.731 - Wheels and 25.735 - Brakes for overpressure and over temperature protection of wheels; New AC 25.735-1 & TSO-C135-Worn/New Brake RTOs
24、SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5699 Page 4 of 13_ 3.1.2 Industry Initiatives The manufacturers in the wheel and tire industry and aircraft manufacturers have voluntarily introduced improvements. Examples include: Increased applications of brake temperature monitoring systems Increased wheel and tire qualifica
25、tion requirements More installations of tire pressure monitoring systems Reducing the number of times tires may be retreaded prior to being discarded 3.1.3 JAA TGM/25/08 Prior to the introduction of EASA, the JAA issued temporary guidance material (TGM) to be used by aircraft manufacturers to assist
26、 in showing compliance to JAR 25.729(f) and JAR 25.1309. This TGM provided threat geometry for bursting tires, flailing tires and wheel rim release. It offered no relief for equipment meeting the latest requirements or for differences in tire construction techniques (Bias vs Radial). SAE Panel A-5-0
27、3-01 was formed to address the subject on tire and wheel threat and to validate and/or update the TGM. Although there were presentations provided at panel meetings suggesting that tire retreads may increase the frequency of flailing tread, and that Radial tires produced smaller tire projectiles when
28、 bursted than Bias tires, insufficient data was provided to update the TGM. The TGM offers no relief for wheels incorporating over pressure release devices as required in TSO - C135 issued after the TGM was written. The SAE panel was concluded with publication of this AIR. Furthermore, the TGM is in
29、tended to address the protection of systems and equipment from the damaging effects of wheel and tire failures. It provides geometric zones around wheels and tires that should be kept free of critical systems and equipment. While these zones provide reasonable stay out areas for systems and equipmen
30、t, they do not address the aircraft structure. If the fuselage is damaged, decompression could occur as shown in the NTSB data discussed below. During the panel meetings there was concern raised pertaining to the fact that JAA/EASA and FAA have not harmonized on the guidance provided in the TGM. The
31、 harmonization of the certification requirements for protecting the aircraft from the damaging effects of wheel and tire failures would streamline the certification process. The TGM could be used as a beginning point with additional consideration for recent regulation changes and industry damage rep
32、orts. 4. IN-SERVICE OPERATIONAL DATA 4.1 NTSB Data A representative from the FAA office in Seattle, Washington retrieved public records of wheel and tire failure events and provided details of the data to the panel for analysis. This data was from events recorded with some level of aircraft damage.
33、It is understood that events considered proprietary and events with no damage are not included in this data base. Table 1 provides the NTSB data sorted by the type of damage. Approximately 40 years of data are included from 1966 through 2005. TABLE 1 - NTSB EVENT DAMAGE DATA Type of Damage Quantity
34、of Events Fatal Accidents 11 Hull Loss with no Fatalities 8 Debries Entered Fuel Tank or Engine 11 Airframe Damage 36 Decompression 7 SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5699 Page 5 of 13_ Analyzing the NTSB data provides an opportunity to understand how events have evolved during the time period when regulations
35、and industry initiatives to enhance aircraft safety have been introduced. Figure 1 provides the events grouped by decade along with the fleet growth. The more important regulations introduced are also shown. The data for the 1960s and 2000s represent partial decades. 0 5 10 15 20 1960s 1970s 1980s 1
36、990s 2000sDecadeNTSBEvents(Bars)0 4000 8000 12000 16000 Jet Aircraft InService(Line)FIGURE 1 - NTSB WHEEL/TIRE EVENTS VS QUANTITY OF AIRCRAFT BY DECADE This figure can be interpreted that events have not grown proportional to fleet size, perhaps due to enhanced safety regulations. Excluding the 1960
37、s and the 2000s, as they encompass NTSB data for only a portion of the decade, leaves three decades to compare. The ratio of NTSB events to total aircraft flying is shown in Table 2 below. This indicates that the number of events per aircraft in service has reduced during the 1980s and 1990s. TABLE
38、2 - EVENTS PER AIRCRAFT IN SERVICE Decade 1970s 1980s 1990s NTSB Event per Quantity of A/C in Service 0.0037 0.0025 0.0013 Figure 2 provides distribution of main and nose tire events. It is interesting to note that none of the events are considered to be caused by a wheel problem. Figure 3 provides
39、a distribution of the events using a damage assessment consistent to the one provided in the OEM data shown later in this report. Notice that there are no events in the “None” category for the NTSB data. With no aircraft damage, apparently no report to the NTSB is filed Figure 4 provides the distrib
40、ution of the flight phase when the event occurred. Tire TSO-C62c Tire Changes Retread AC145-4 Nitrogen AD87-08-09 Wheel TSO C-135 Tire AC145-4A AC20-97B SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5699 Page 6 of 13_ 1966-2005 Aircraft Events32843051015202530354045Main Tire Burst Main TireFlailingNose Tire Burst Nose TireF
41、lailingFIGURE 2 - DISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS BY CAUSE Damage Assessment of Events0%5%10 %15 %20%25%30%35%40%45%50%Substantial Major Minor NoneFIGURE 3 - CRITICALITY DISTRIBUTION OF NTSB EVENTS SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5699 Page 7 of 13_ Flight Phase of Tire Events388720510152025303540Take Off Flight La
42、nding TaxiFIGURE 4 - NTSB EVENTS BY FLIGHT PHASE 4.2 Analysis of NTSB Data An Analysis was performed to assess how regulation changes or industry practices would mitigate any of the events. Table 3 provides the results of the mitigation analysis. The total of the percentages in the table is greater
43、than 100 as several events were considered to benefit from more than one of the mitigation categories. TABLE 3 - MITIGATION METHOD OF NTSB EVENTS Mitigation Category Certification Requirements to Mitigate Category Quantity of Events Mitigated Service tires with nitrogen Yes (AD 87-08-09) 39% TPMS No
44、 (Daily pressure checks recommended in AC 20-97B) 38% Improved wheel pressure release features Yes (TSO-C135) 18% BTMS No (May measure either brake BTMS or wheel bay temperature per AMC 25.729 f) 13% FAA/JAA rules or TGM Yes (25.729 f) and TGM 13% Improved Retread Inspection Equipment and Technique
45、No (AC 145-4A) 11% 5. OEM COLLECTED DATA 5.1 Major Aircraft Manufacturer Provided Database It was considered by the panel members that this database is very similar to the data used by the JAA to generate the TGM. This data was categorized by hazard severity with a large number of events being class
46、ified as no damage. This likely represents a better distribution of hazard severity for an aircraft fleet, as it does not exclude events with no damage. The data is analyzed the same as the NTSB data. Figure 5 provides the distribution between tire tread, tire pressure and wheel related events. Figu
47、re 6 provides a criticality assessment for the events. Figures 7, 8, and 9 provide the criticality assessment for each of the three event causes. SAE INTERNATIONAL AIR5699 Page 8 of 13_ Cause Distribution of Events0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%Tire Tread Tire Pressure Wheel FIGURE 5 - CAUSE DISTRIBUTION OF MANUFACTURER DATA Damage Assessment of Eve
