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5、n of Human Factor Considerations for Outdoor Laser Operations in the Navigable Airspace FOREWORDThe G-10T Laser Hazards Subcommittee of the SAE G-10 Human Factors Behavioral Engineering Committee has convened meetings over thirty times during the past four years to identify issues, technologies, ope
6、rational capabilities, and potential flight hazards presented by outdoor laser shows and other laser illuminations which extend into the navigable airspace. Activities related to these endeavors have been supported by subcommittee members from seventeen different organizations, including both govern
7、mental agencies and commercial or private firms. Information resulting from these activities and other activities identified in this document was requested by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to assist in the development of FAA Order 7400.2D, “Recommended Interim Guidelines,” and the m
8、ore recent development of FAA Advisory Circular 70-3, “Laser Operations in the National Airspace System.” SAE AIR5995 Page 2 of 26 TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. SCOPE 31.1 Purpose . 32. REFERENCES 33. BACKGROUND 44. FACTORS AFFECTING PILOT WORKLOAD 54.1 Flight Disorientation 54.2 Instrument Flight Training .
9、 54.3 Human Balance Systems 64.3.1 Visual System 64.3.2 Ambient Vision . 64.3.3 Vestibular System 64.3.4 Somatosensory System . 64.4 Situational Awareness 74.5 Vision Impairment From Excessive Illumination . 74.5.1 Glare and Dazzle . 74.5.2 Flash Blindness. 84.5.3 After-images . 85. VALIDATION OF PR
10、OPOSED ILLUMINATION STANDARDS IN TERMINAL AIRSPACE 85.1 The Tasks . 85.2 Standards Evaluated . 95.3 Test Objective . 95.4 Experimental Design . 105.5 Data Analysis 145.6 Test Implementation 145.7 Laser Installation . 145.8 Subject Pilots 145.9 Test Procedures 155.10 Simulated Weather Conditions . 15
11、5.11 Simulator Operating Concept and Procedures: 155.12 Initial Simulator Conditions . 155.13 Simulator Operators Control Page . 155.14 Success Criteria 155.15 Data Collection 165.16 Test Plan Numbering Convention . 165.17 Medical Risk Analysis . 175.18 Evaluation Results 175.19 Flight Performance 1
12、75.20 Aversion Reactions . 175.21 Protective Eyewear . 185.22 Conclusion 18ATTACHMENT 1 PRE-FLIGHT EYE EXAMINATION . 19ATTACHMENT 2 PRE-FLIGHT QUESTIONNAIRE 20ATTACHMENT 3 IN-FLIGHT QUESTIONNAIRE 21ATTACHMENT 4 POST-FLIGHT QUESTIONNAIRE 22ATTACHMENT 5 POST-FLIGHT EYE EXAMINATION 25ATTACHMENT 6 LASER
13、 HAZARD ANALYSIS 26SAE AIR5995 Page 3 of 26 1. SCOPE This report identifies the reasons for, and results associated with, the conduct of a flight simulation research project evaluating the effect of low powered laser beam illumination of pilot crewmembers operating in the navigable airspace. This ev
14、aluation was primarily concerned with the possible degradation of pilot performance when illuminated by a laser while operating in an airport terminal area where pilot workloads are normally at their maximum. 1.1 Purpose The purpose of the reported simulation evaluation was to validate guidelines es
15、tablished by the FAA for allowable laser exposures in navigable airspace. 2. REFERENCES 1. Sliney, David and Myron Wolbarsht, Safe1y with Lasers and Other Optical Sources - A Comprehensive Handbook, Plenurn Press, New York, 1982. 2. Boettner, E.A. and Wolter, J.R., “Transmission of the Ocular Media“
16、, Invest. Ophthal 1: pp. 776-783. 3. Zuclich, J.A. and Taboada, J. “Ocular Hazard from UV Laser Exhibiting Self-ModeBlocking“, Appl Optics 17: pp. 1482-1484.4. Sliney, D.H., Wangemann, R.T., Franks, J.K., and Wolbarsht, M.L., “Visual Sensitivity of the Eye to Infi-ared Laser Radiation“, J. Opt. Soc.
17、 Am., 66(4): pp. 339-341. 5. Green, R.P., Cartledge, R.M., Cheney, F.E., and Menendez, A.R. (1988). Medical management of combat laser eye injuries. USAFSAM-TR-88-21, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Human Systems Division (AFSC), Brooks AFB, TX. 6. Labo, J.A., Menendez, A.R., Allen, R.G., Edmonds
18、, B.P., and Turner, M.D. (1990). Outdoor measures of laser veiling glare effects in the visual field: a preliminary study. USAFSAM-TP-90-9, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Human Systems Division (AFSC), Brooks AFB, TX. 7. Varner, D.C., Cartledge, R.M., Elliott, W.R., Menendez, A.R., Carrier, R.,
19、and Richter, M.J. (1988). Wavelength-dependent and -independent effects of veiling glare on the visibility of head-up display (HUD) symbology. USAFSAM-TR-88-15, USAF School of Aerospace Medicine, Human Systems Division (AFSC), Brooks AFB, TX. 8. D_Andrea, J.A., and Knepton, J.C. (1989). Effect of la
20、ser glare and aircraft windscreen on visual search performance under low ambient lighting. NAMRL-1350, Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Naval Air Station, Pensacola, FL. 9. Reddix, M.D., Devietti, T.L., Knepton, J.C., and D_Andrea, J.A. (1990). The effect of three levels of laser glare o
21、n the speed and accuracy of target location performance when viewing a briefly presented visual array. NAMRL-1367, Naval Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Naval Air Station, Pensacola, FL. 10. American National Standards Institute. (1993). American National Standard for the Safe Use of Lasers.
22、Standard Z136.1. New York: The Laser Institute of America. 11. Thomas, Sherri R., “Review of Personnel Susceptibility to Lasers: Simulation in Simnet-D for CTAS-2.0“, AL/OE-TR-1994-0060, January 1994. 12. National American Standards Institute ANSI Z136-1-1993,“ American National Standard for the Saf
23、e Use of Lasers“. 13. National American Standards Institute ANSI Z 136-3- 1987, “Laser Safety and the Healthcare Environment“. 14. Ivan, D.J., and ONeill, H.J., “Laser Induced Acute Visual and Cognitive Incapacitation of Aircrew, Protection Management, and Cockpit Integration“, AGARDOGRAPH AGARD-AR3
24、54, Chapter 11: pp. 73-85, Apr 98. SAE AIR5995 Page 4 of 26 15. Lerman, S., Radiant Energy and the Eye, Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York, 1980. 16. Dillard, A. E. , “Test Plan: Effects of Laser Illumination on Pilots Conducting Terminal Operations”, DOT/FAA/99AFS408-4, August 99. 17. Dillard
25、, A.E., “Preliminary Results of Simulator Evaluation: Effects of Laser Illumination on Pilots Conducting Terminal Operations”, DOT/FAA/00AFS408-1, April 2000.3. BACKGROUND During terminal flight operations, distractions in the cockpit are specifically minimized to enhance the orderly conduct of flig
26、ht procedures. For example, below 10,000 feet, the Federal Aviation Regulations (FARs) require a sterile (quiet) cockpit that minimizes distractions and reduces the potential for flight procedure errors. However, sound is not the only factor that can cause distractions. Pilot vision factors can prod
27、uce a variety of distractions that varies with pilot visual workload.Pilot visual workload is task dependent relating to the particular phase of flight being undertaken. Below 1000 feet, the aircraft must be in a landing configuration and in position to complete a normal landing. In a landing approa
28、ch the crewmembers must be able to visually identify the runway threshold or other lighting configurations. If these lighting configurations are not visually identifiable the pilot must execute a go-around. In recent years there has been an increase of incidence of laser illuminations of flight crew
29、 personnel while conducting flight operations. These incidents have most generally occurred near airports located in close proximity to resort destinations and large entertainment events. Some of the incidents have resulted in temporary vision impairment and aversion reactions by flight crewmembers.
30、 As an example, during November of 1993, a Southwest Airlines B-737 departing Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, experienced a laser beam illumination at 500 feet AGL. The laser beam source was reported to have originated from one of the hotels located near the airport. The beam had entered the cockpit through
31、 the copilots window. The copilot reported the loss of vision in his right eye for about 15 minutes. The following day, an ophthalmologist examined the copilot and found evidence of conjunctiva hemorrhage in the right eye. The captain of the referenced flight stated that if the laser had passed thro
32、ugh the front windshield, illuminating both pilots, it was his opinionthat they would have lost control of the aircraft. During the eighteen-month period following this particular incident a series of fifty-one laser beam illuminations of aircraft were reported at or near the Las Vegas Airport. Air
33、carrier operators operating large transport airplanes and local operators operating helicopter aircraft were the primary originators of these reports. In addition, emergency and law enforcement operators have also reported uncontrolled laser illuminations near the Los Vegas Airport. The U.S. medical
34、 and aviation regulatory agencies have agreed that existing regulations and guidelines were not adequate for the current usage of laser beam technologies in navigable airspace. Clearly, there could be temporary functional impairments of flight crews at levels of illumination much lower than those no
35、rmally associated with physical injury. An aviation safety issue was truly indicated. The fifty-one documented laser incidents resulted in a moratorium on the use of outdoor lasers in Las Vegas, Nevada, USA, in late 1993 and during 1994. A number of these incidents resulted in temporary visual impai
36、rment of pilots operating commercial aircraft in the Los Vegas Airport terminal area. To date, no conclusive medical documentation exists of any permanent eye injuries to illuminated crewmembers. There are two areas where outdoor laser operations potentially pose a safety concern to flight crewmembe
37、rs. The first is a condition where maximum permissible exposure (MPE) is exceeded and physical injury to the illuminated eye can occur. The second area of concern is a situation where MPE is not exceeded but there is still a potential for functional impairment. This concern includes physiological ef
38、fects such as flash blindness, after-image, glare and dazzle. These effects can be most hazardous when laser illuminations interfere with the vision of the crewmembers and result in a temporary vision loss (TVL) during certain critical phases of flight such as takeoff maneuvers, landing maneuvers, a
39、nd especially standard instrument departures that require climbing steady state turns. TVL is associated with (1) flash blindness, (2) after-image, and (3) glare that may cause incapacitation or reduced physical performance. SAE AIR5995 Page 5 of 26 During an illumination event certain physiological
40、 ocular symptoms may cause a momentary loss of vision due to light sensitivity, tearing or glare. This could result in crewmember disorientation. Glare can cause a reduction or total loss of vision, but the effect is temporary, lasting only as long as the light is present in the observers field of v
41、iew. Temporary visual impairment, normally associated with distraction, disruption and minor afterimages, while generally not leading to incapacitation, can be hazardous if it occurs at critical phases of flight, or at low altitudes. 4. FACTORS AFFECTING PILOT WORKLOAD 4.1 Flight Disorientation Flig
42、ht disorientation of pilots is characterized by one of two categories: geographical disorientation and spatial disorientation. Temporary loss of vision during steady state turns, for example, requires the crewmember to rely upon questionable vestibular responses which crewmembers have been previousl
43、y trained to suppress during instrument flight. This unreliable vestibular sensory sensation can cause spatial disorientation (SD) and loss of situation awareness (LSA). Flight crewmembers receive 90% to 95% of their information visually to develop information patterns for alpha-numeric associations
44、 and trend vector analysis options. Loss of visual reference can create startle, distraction, disruption, disorientation, and in extreme cases, temporary incapacitation. Since flight crewmembers are trained to interpret, integrate and process information in a dynamic environment without horizontal r
45、eference to the outside world, any interruption in visual performance during critical phases of flight creates a potential for incidents associated with loss of control of the aircraft. 4.2 Instrument Flight Training Factors that have a significant impact on human performance that is based on inform
46、ation integration are included in instrument flight training programs. Flight crewmembers receive almost all of their flight control and guidance information visually to develop patterns, associations, and linear trend analysis options. This information requirement becomes more intense during nightt
47、ime operations where the retinas photoreceptor rods are responsible for detection of movements, shapes and night vision. Even without additional impairment from a lasers visual interference, statistics show the accident rate at night is almost three times the rate for daytime flight operations. Furt
48、her increases in accident rates, particularly bynight-time laser illuminations, would not be an acceptable development. In certain phases of flight, flight crewmembers operate in a dynamic environment that requires constant and rapid intentional updates in order to maintain situational awareness. During flight in instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) crewmembers must rely, exclusively, on their flight instruments. These are classified as either (1) control instruments or (2) performance instruments for proper spatial orientation. Control instruments include such things as t
