1、HORI BA Automotive T est Systems Edited by Masayuki Adachi, Hiroshi Nakamura AUTOMOTIVE INTERNATIONAL JPF-HOR-002 Hiroshi Nakamura, Ph. D. is a Global Segment Leader of th e Auto mot ive Test Syste ms segment, HORIBA Group. He has over 1 5 years experience in th e R phone 877-606-7323 (U.S. and Cana
2、da only) or +1-724-776-4970 (outside U.S. and Canada); fax +1-724-776-0790; email CustomerServicesae.org; website http:/ /books.sae.org. 6385_book.indb 2 9/23/13 2:42 PM Engine Emissions Measurement Handbook HORIBA Automotive Test Systems Edited by Masayuki Adachi and Hiroshi Nakamura Warrendale, Pe
3、nnsylvania, USA 6385_book.indb 3 9/23/13 2:42 PM Copyright 2014 SAE International. eISBN: 978-0-7680-8049-0400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) +1-724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: +1-724-776-0790 Copyright 2014
4、 SAE International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distrib- uted, or transmitted, in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of SAE International. For permission and licensing requests, contact SAE Permissions,
5、400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA; email: copyrightsae.org; phone: 724-772-4028; fax: 724-772-9765. ISBN 978-0-7680-8012-4 SAE Order Number JPF-HOR-002 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Engine emissions measurement handbook / edited by Masayuki Adachi and Hiroshi
6、 Nakamura. pages cm Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-0-7680-8012-4 1. AutomobilesPollution control devicesTestingHandbooks, manuals, etc. 2. AutomobilesMotorsExhaust gasMeasurement Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Adachi, Masayuki (Engineer), editor. II. Nakamura, Hiroshi (Engineer), editor.
7、 TL214.P6E57 2014 629.2528dc23 2013021859 Information contained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither SAE Inte
8、rnational nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its authors are supplying information, but are not attempting to render engineering or other professio
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10、Visit the SAE International Bookstore at http:/ /books.sae.org 6385_book.indb 4 9/23/13 2:42 PMv Contents Forewordxi Acknowledgments xiii Introduction . xv Chapter 1 Engine Emissions 1 1.1 Characteristics of Engine Exhaust Gas .1 1.1.1 Major Components of Engine Exhaust Gas .1 1.1.2 Units Used for E
11、xhaust Gas Components.1 1.1.3 Concentration Variations of Exhaust Gas Components .2 1.1.4 Exhaust Gas as Fluid (Physical Characteristics) .2 1.1.4.1 Density .3 1.1.4.2 Viscosity (Coefficient of Viscosity) 3 1.1.4.3 Specific Heat 4 1.1.4.4 Temperature.4 1.2 Major Air Pollutants in Engine Exhaust5 1.2
12、.1 Inorganic Compounds .5 1.2.2 Organic Compounds 6 1.2.2.1 Hydrocarbons .6 1.2.2.2 Alcohols and Carbonyls.6 1.2.3 Engine Exhaust Particulates 7 1.3 Greenhouse Gases in Exhaust Emissions .7 References7 Appendix A.1 Calculations of Engine Exhaust Gas Composition .9 A.1.1 Combustion Reaction Formula .
13、9 A.1.2 Calculations of Gas Component Concentration 11 A.1.3 Excess Air Ratio and Gas Component Concentration .12 Chapter 2 Gaseous Emissions Measurement 13 2.1 Overview.13 2.1.1 Direct Sampling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 2.1.1.1 Gas Sampling wi
14、th the Direct Sampling Method.14 2.1.1.2 Equations of Mass Emission 14 2.1.2 Dilution Sampling Method 15 2.2 Constant Volume Sampler 15 2.2.1 Overview of the Constant Volume Sampler 15 2.2.2 System Structure .16 2.2.2.1 Mixing Tee .16 6385_book.indb 5 9/23/13 2:42 PMvi Contents 2.2.2.2 Flow Controll
15、er .18 2.2.2.3 Gas Sampling Bags . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.2.3 Calculation of Mass Emission21 2.2.4 System Setup and System Check .22 2.2.4.1 Setting the Dilution Flow Rate 22 2.2.4.2 Calibration of the Dilution Flow Rate 24 2.2.4.3 Total System Verificatio
16、n .26 2.3 Measurement of Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicles by the CVS Method 27 2.3.1 Compensation of Background (Dilution Air).29 2.3.1.1 Active Carbon Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 2.3.1.2 Dilution Air Refiner .29 2.3.1.3 Proportional Ambient Sampling Method .30
17、 2.3.2 Optimization of Dilution Ratio.31 2.3.2.1 Variable-Flow CVS 31 2.3.2.2 Heated CVS 31 2.3.2.3 Dehumidification of the Dilution Air.32 2.3.3 Preventing HC Hang-Up32 2.3.3.1 Selection of Materials 32 2.3.3.2 Separate Sample Lines for Low-Concentration Measurement .32 2.3.3.3 Extensive Purging .3
18、2 2.3.3.4 Blank Tests .33 2.4 Bag Mini Diluter.34 2.4.1 System Configuration and Features.34 2.4.2 Mass Emission Calculation 36 2.5 Exhaust Flow Rate Measurement 36 2.5.1 Summary of Exhaust Flow Measurement36 2.5.2 Direct Measurement Method 36 2.5.2.1 Ultrasonic Flow Meter .36 2.5.2.2 Pitot Tube Flo
19、w Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 2.5.3 Indirect Measurement Method .40 2.5.3.1 Intake Air Flow and Fuel Flow 40 2.5.3.2 Intake Air Flow and Air-to-Fuel Ratio 41 2.5.3.3 Tracer Method 41 References.43 Chapter 3 Measurement of Particle Emissions and Black Smoke .4
20、5 3.1 PM Mass Filter Weighing (Balance) Method .47 3.1.1 PM Sampling from a Tunnel .47 3.1.1.1 Full- Flow Dilution Tunnel 47 3.1.1.2 Micro Dilution Tunnel .48 3.1.2 Filter Weighing 51 6385_book.indb 6 9/23/13 2:42 PMvii Contents 3.1.3 Separate Analysis of Soluble Organic Fraction .53 3.2 Other Metho
21、ds for Exhaust Particle Mass Measurement 53 3.2.1 Filter Combustion Method for Measuring Low- Mass PM 53 3.2.2 Continuous Measurement of PM Mass Concentration.55 3.3 Particle Number Measurement 56 3.3.1 Continuous Measurement of Solid Particle Number 56 3.3.2 Particle Size Distribution Measurement .
22、57 3.4 Measurement of Black Smoke .60 3.4.1 Opacity Meter .60 3.4.2 Light Reflection .61 References.61 Chapter 4 Evaporative Emissions Measurement .63 4.1 Outline of Evaporative Emission Regulation 63 4.2 Evaporation Test of Parked Vehicles64 4.2.1 Outline of the Test64 4.2.1.1 Variable Pressure Abs
23、orption System 66 4.2.1.2 Calibration and HC Retention Test.66 4.2.2 Analyzer for Evaporative Emission Measurement 67 4.2.2.1 Analyzer .67 4.2.2.2 Calculation of Evaporation Rate.67 4.3 Running Loss Evaporation Test67 4.3.1 Evaluation of the Entire Vehicle 68 4.3.1.1 SHED Configuration.68 4.3.1.2 Fu
24、el Temperature Profile .69 4.3.2 Evaluation of Evaporative Emission by the Point- Sour ce Method .70 4.4 Evaporative Test After Vehicle Driving .71 References.71 Chapter 5 Principles of Exhaust Gas Analyzers . 73 5.1 Analytical Principles for Regulated Emission Components of Interest.73 5.2 Non- Dis
25、persive Infrared Detection.74 5.2.1 Principle 75 5.2.2 Infrared Detector.76 5.2.2.1 Pyroelectric- Type Infrared Detector 77 5.2.2.2 Pneumatic Cell- Type Detector.78 5.2.2.3 Detector Using Lead Selenide .79 5.2.3 Application to Exhaust Gas Analyzers 80 5.2.3.1 Interference Compensation by AS Method80
26、 5.2.3.2 Adjustment of Water Concentration in Calibration Gas .81 5.3 Flame Ionization Detection82 5.3.1 Principle of Flame Ionization Detection .82 6385_book.indb 7 9/23/13 2:42 PMviii Contents 5.3.2 Application to Exhaust Gas Analyzer .83 5.3.2.1 Separate Measurement of Methane 83 5.3.2.2 Compensa
27、tion of Oxygen Interference .84 5.4 Chemiluminescence Detection.85 5.4.1 Principle of Chemiluminescence Detection 86 5.4.2 Application to the Exhaust Gas Analyzer87 5.4.2.1 Atmospheric Pressure- Type and Vacuum Pr essur e- T ype NOx Analyzers 87 5.4.2.2 Options of Sample Dehumidification 88 5.5 Para
28、magnetic Detection 89 5.6 Zirconia Solid Electrolyte Method91 5.6.1 Zir conia- T ype Air - to- Fuel Ratio Sensor91 5.6.2 Zirconia- Type Nitrogen Oxide Sensor.92 5.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy .93 5.7.1 Principle of Fourier Transform Infrared Gas Analyzer.93 5.7.2 Analyzer Configuration
29、and Target Gas Components .94 5.8 Mid- Infrared Laser Spectroscopy 96 5.9 Gas Chromatography 97 5.9.1 Principle of Gas Chromatography 97 5.9.2 System Components and Conditions .98 5.9.2.1 Column 98 5.9.2.2 Oven Temperature 99 5.9.2.3 Detector .99 5.9.2.4 Sample Injector .99 References100 Chapter 6 T
30、esting Equipment for Vehicle Emissions . 101 6.1 General Configuration 101 6.2 Equipment for Simulating Actual Driving Conditions .103 6.3 Equipment for Gas Component Analysis.103 6.3.1 Constant Volume Sampling System103 6.3.2 Exhaust Gas Analyzer .104 6.4 Particle Measurement Equipment.105 6.5 Driv
31、ing Aid Equipment/Automatic Driving Equipment .105 6.5.1 Drivers Aid System .105 6.5.2 Robot Driver .105 6.6 Automation System .107 6.6.1 Laboratory Automation System .107 6.6.2 Full- Automatic Unmanned Testing System .108 Chapter 7 Practical Measurement of Engine Emissions 111 7.1 Emission Measurem
32、ents for Powertrain Development . 111 7.1.1 Air- to- Fuel Ratio and Excess Air Ratio . 111 6385_book.indb 8 9/23/13 2:42 PMix Contents 7.1.1.1 Calculating from Exhaust Gas Concentrations 111 7.1.1.2 Real- Time Measurement Using Zirconia Sensor 114 7.1.2 Exhaust Gas Recirculation Ratio 115 7.1.2.1 Ca
33、lculation from CO 2Concentrations .115 7.1.2.2 Transient Measurement of EGR Ratio .116 7.1.3 Fuel Consumption 117 7.1.3.1 Vehicles Using Combustion Engine for Power Source 117 7.1.3.2 Hybrid Vehicles 118 7.1.4 Engine Oil Consumption.120 7.1.4.1 S- trace Method.121 7.1.4.2 Calculation of Oil Consumpt
34、ion122 7.1.5 Catalytic Converter Evaluation .124 7.1.5.1 Three- Way Catalytic Converter Evaluation 124 7.1.5.2 Evaluation of Aftertreatment System for Nitrogen Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 7.1.5.3 Evaluation of Diesel Particulate Filter .128
35、 7.1.5.4 Evaluation of Aftertreatment Catalyst Using Model Gas 128 7.1.6 Measurement of Oxygenated Hydrocarbons 129 7.1.6.1 Quantitative Estimation of Alcohols 129 7.1.6.2 Quantitative Estimation of Carbonyl Compounds 131 7.1.6.3 Measurement of Non- Methane Organic Gases .133 7.1.7 Measurement of Gr
36、eenhouse Gases136 7.1.8 Modal Mass Analysis 137 7.1.9 Onboard Emission Measurements .140 7.2 Emission Test for Type Approval146 7.2.1 Scope of Regulation and Test Procedures .146 7.2.2 Common Test Procedure .147 7.2.2.1 Test Cycles 148 7.2.2.2 Off- Cycle Emission Tests 149 7.3 Emission Test for Prod
37、uction Vehicles .151 7.3.1 Random Sampling Inspection on Production Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 7.3.2 In- Use Vehicle Measurement .151 References152 Chapter 8 Emission Regulations Around the World and Worldwide Harmonization of Technical Regulations . 157 8.1 Emission Regulations Around the W
38、orld.157 8.1.1 Japanese Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 8.1.1.1 History and Regulatory Process 157 8.1.1.2 Recent Trend 159 8.1.2 United States Emission Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 8.1.2.1 History and Regula
39、tory Process 160 6385_book.indb 9 9/23/13 2:42 PMx Contents 8.1.2.2 Recent Trend 161 8.1.3 European Union Emission Standards 163 8.1.3.1 History and Regulatory Process 163 8.1.3.2 Recent Trend 164 8.1.4 Other Nations and Regions.164 8.2 Worldwide Harmonization of Technical Regulations and Mutual Rec
40、ognition of Approval165 8.2.1 1958 Agreement and ECE Regulation 166 8.2.2 1998 Agreement and gtr166 References167 Index 169 6385_book.indb 10 9/23/13 2:42 PMxi Foreword The HORIBA Group marked its 60th anniversary in 2013, growing together with the advancement of a variety of industries in the world
41、. During these years, engine emission measurement technologies have made remark- able progress, which has corresponded to the growth of the automotive industry, and have become HORIBAs largest business segment. This history reflects an expansion on the concept of simple gas analyzers to more sophist
42、icated, integrated laboratory automation systems, ranging in purpose from sample handling to test automation. The development needs of low-emission, high-efficiency engines; alter- native fuels; and catalyst systems have provided HORIBA with great opportunities to develop new technologies. We deeply
43、 appreciate the valuable input and construc- tive relationship that has been developed between our company, the industry, and our valued customers. Recent advancements in computers and information technology have somewhat overshadowed the intrinsic analytical technologies and their historical backgr
44、ound. This handbook summarizes the necessary knowledge of analytical methods and advanced applications for the latest engine emission measurements. I hope this handbook will help with powertrain R&D activities, and further contrib- ute to the growth of the automotive industry. May 2013 Atsushi Horiba Chairman, President & CEO 6385_book.indb 11 9/23/13 2:42 PM
