1、Head Injury Biomechanics Volume 2 The Brain Edited by Jeffrey A. Pike PROGRESS IN TECHNOLOGY SERIES i Head Injury Biomechanics Volume II The Brainii Other SAE books of interest: Neck Injury Biomechanics Edited by Jeffrey A. Pike (Product Code: PT-141) Forensic Biomechanics: Using Medical Records to
2、Study Injury Mechanisms Jeffrey A. Pike (Product Code: R-379) Vehicle Accident Analysis and Reconstruction Methods, Second Edition Raymond A. Brach and Matthew Brach (Product Code: R-397)For more information or to order a book, contact SAE International: 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-
3、0001 phone: 877-606-7323 (U.S. and Canada) or 724-776-4970 (outside U.S. and Canada) fax: 724-776-0790; email: CustomerServicesae.org; website: http:/books.sae.orgiii Jeffrey A. Pike Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA Head Injury Biomechanics, Volume II The Brain Copyright 2011 SAE International eISBN: 9
4、78-0-7680-6445-2iv 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA Email CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Copyright 2011 SAE International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
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6、7680-6036-2 Library of Congress Catalog Number 2011930695 SAE Order Number PT-152/2 DOI 10.4271/PT-152/2 Information contained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or comple
7、teness of any information published herein and neither SAE International nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its authors are supplying information,
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9、and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Visit the SAE International Bookstore at http:/books.sae.orgv Dedication To Debbie and the “kids, ” Stacy, Adam, Blair, and Emily, and to the memory of my parents and sister, Herbert, May, and Anne Pike, and to the memory of Professor Voigt Hod
10、gson.vivii Table of Contents Preface ix Acknowledgments xi Blunt Head Trauma 1 List of Papers Volume II (The Brain) Bussone W.R., Moore T.L.A., Richards D., Bove R.T., Scher I., Prange M.T., Measurements of Non-Injurious Head Accelerations of a Pediatric Population. SAE Paper 2009-01-0383. SAE Inter
11、national. 2009. 19 Davidsson J., Angeria M., Risling M., Injury Threshold for Sagittal Plane Rotational Induced Diffuse Axonal Injuries. Proceedings of the 2009 International Research Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact, (IRCOBI). 2009. 41 Deck C., Baumgartner D., Willinger R., Influence of Rot
12、ational Acceleration on Intracranial Mechanical Parameters Under Accidental Circumstances. Proceedings of the 2007 International Research Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact, (IRCOBI). 2007. 55 Funk J.R., Duma S.M., Manoogian S.J., Rowson S., Biomechanical Risk Estimates for Mild Traumatic Brai
13、n Injury. Proc 51 Annual Assoc Advance Automotive Med (AAAM). 2007. 69 Gennarelli T.A., Thibault L.E., Tomei G., Wiser R., Graham D., Adams J., Directional Dependence of Axonal Brain Injury due to Centroidal and Non-Centroidal Acceleration. Paper 872197. Proc 31 Stapp Car Crash Conf 1987. 89 Jain P
14、., Ghati Y., Menon R.A., Feasibility Study of SIMon in Predicting Head Injuries in Children. SAE Paper 2007-01-2483. SAE International. 2007. 95 Kleiven S., Influence of Direction and Duration of Impacts to the Human Head Evaluated Using the Finite Element Method, Proceedings of the 2005 Internation
15、al Research Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact, (IRCOBI). 2005. 115 Mertz H.J., Prasad P ., Nusholtz G., Head Injury Risk Assessment for Forehead Impacts. Paper 960099. Society of Automotive Engineers. 1996. 133 Morrison III B., Yu Z., Elkin B., Progress on Tissue-Level, Functional Tolerance C
16、riteria and Material Properties of the Living Brain with Anatomical Resolution, Proceedings of the 2009 International Research Conference on the Biomechanics of Impact (IRCOBI). 2009. 157viii Nusholtz G.S., Glascoe L.G., Wylie E.B., Cavitation During Head Impact. Paper 970390. Society of Automotive
17、Engineers. 1997. 169 Schreiber D.I., Bain A.C., Meaney D.F., In Vivo Thresholds for Mechanical Injury to the Blood-Brain Barrier. Paper 973335. Society of Automotive Engineers. 1997. 183 Strachan D.S., The Anatomy and Physiology of the Head and Neck. In: Huelke D.F., Strachan D.S., Grabb W.C., Evans
18、 F.G., States J.D., Burdi A.R., Frey C.F., Votaw C.L., Patrick L.M., Mertz H.J., Human Anatomy, Impact Injuries, and Human Tolerances. Paper 700195. Society of Automotive Engineers. 1970. 199 Turquier F., Kang H.S., Trosseille X., Willinger R., Lavaste F., Tarriere C., Dmont A., Validation Study of
19、a 3D Finite Element Head Model Against Experimental Data. Paper 962431, Proc. 40 Stapp Car Crash Conf. 1996. 211 References 223 References by Topic 237 About the Editor 239ix Preface An earlier SAE International compendium (Biomechanics of Impact Injury and Injury Tolerances of the Head-Neck Complex
20、, PT-43, edited by Stanley H. Backaitis) provided a collection of papers from the early 1960s through 1991 and so this compendium focuses on the early 1990s up to the present (2011). This collection also includes several of the earlier papers to help put current research into a historical perspectiv
21、e. The “Blunt Head Trauma” chapter ties together anatomy, injury mechanisms, and a number of related topics regarding current research as well as introduces some of the concepts likely to be utilized in the future. It takes an interdisciplinary approach and draws upon transportation, sports, falls,
22、and military applications of the basic principles. This compendium is divided into three volumes: The Skull (Volume I); The Brain (Volume II); and Mitigation (Volume III). Volume I contains publications primarily related to head impact and the resulting injury to the “outside” of the head, namely th
23、e skin, bones of the skull, and sensory organs. Volume II includes publications relating to injury of the heads contents, primarily the brain, its surrounding membranes, and its blood supply. The causes of the injuries include head impact with an external environment (e.g., vehicle interior) and abr
24、upt head movement without head impact. Volume III applies protective strategies to various injury scenarios (e.g., passenger vehicles, football players, blast injuries) or to a particular demographic group (e.g., children, seniors). Each volume includes: 1) reprints of approximately a dozen previous
25、ly-published technical papers, plus an SAE paper providing a detailed discussion of the anatomy of the head; 2) a table of more than 250 references arranged by topic, (e.g., transportation mode or sport); and 3) a new chapter that ties together various aspects of anatomy, injury, and injury mechanis
26、ms. The resultant insight regarding head injury should be applicable to a broad range of applications, including transportation, falls, sports, and blast-related injury and the reprinted papers, in conjunction with the bibliography and chapter, should offer useful insights, not only with regard to t
27、he past and present, but as this ever-changing field continues to evolve, regarding future applications as well.xxi Acknowledgments First and foremost, it is my pleasure to acknowledge the role of the Advisory Panel. Once again, I have been very fortunate to have been assisted by a truly outstanding
28、 panel how can you go wrong with a group that includes several PhDs, two physician engineers, two neurosurgeons, and a knight? Their help with paper selection and material review was invaluable. Each member of the panel is truly a world-renowned authority and I thank each of them for their willingne
29、ss to participate and for sharing their time and expertise. The Advisory Panel members all have “day jobs” in which capacity they help save lives and reduce injuries. Ultimately, injury biomechanics is not about papers and books, but about reducing morbidity and mortality from biomechanical trauma.
30、I hope this volume will help others to continue these efforts. ADVISORY PANEL John M. Cavanaugh Dept. of Biomedical Engineering Wayne State University USA Carlton Russ Greer Greer Neurosurgery Clinic Monroe, Louisiana USA Murray Mackay Prof. Emeritus of Transport Safety University of Birmingham UK R
31、obert S. Salzar Principal Scientist Center for Applied Biomechanics University of Virginia USA Erik G. Takhounts Human Injury Research Division National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Washington, DC USA David C. Viano ProBiomechanics LLC Bloomfield Hills, MI USA Alex Valadka Chief, Adult Neur
32、osciences Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine (AAAM); National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). Many of the authors graciously provided review copies of their papers and were very generous with their time. Ultimately, this volume was the result of a number of diverse
33、 selection criteria, and some very fine papers could not be included.xii The dedication page of this book includes head injury researcher, Prof. Voigt Hodgson. He somehow managed to balance directing a research laboratory, teaching and serving as a role model and on a personal note, was a gracious h
34、ost who always provided a generous supply of the worlds best donuts. Finally, this is my fifth volume for SAE International the first three as author and then two as editor. Perhaps the best acknowledgment that I can give to Martha Swiss and the crew at SAE is to mention that there may be a sixth (c
35、all it a “sixth sense”). Jeffrey A. Pike SAE Fellow and Series Editor Biomechanics Consulting, Inc. USA1 Blunt Head Trauma Introduction This chapter provides an overview of head anatomy and discusses a variety of blunt head injuries, injury mechanisms, and mitigation applications. Although this chap
36、ter focuses on transportation- related injury, primarily of the brain and the bones of the skull, the interdisciplinary approach also draws upon sports, falls, and blast injuries. The chapter concludes with a brief look at some of the latest developments and possible future trends. The goal is to pr
37、ovide readers with a common background to better utilize the referenced publica- tions, to facilitate interdisciplinary cooperation, and ultimately to foster developments that will mitigate head injuries. Many of the references at the end of this chapter discuss how an injury is caused, i.e., transp
38、ortation- related (Aircraft: 11, 87; Bicycle: 35, 42, 234; Car/Light Truck/Van: 17, 34, 40, 41, 110, 119, 123, 146, 155, 157, 159-163, 175, 181, 220, 246, 252, 256; Commercial Ve- hicle: 18, 43, 84, 191; Horseback: 80; Motorcycle: 78, 137, 197; Pedestrian: 60, 65, 109, 147, 173, 185, 195, 205, 212,
39、228 Race Cars: 136, 139, 140; Railroads: 33), sport-related (General: 52, 104, 132, 156, 196, 237; Baseball: 204; Boxing: 182, 230, 239; Football: 19, 158, 176, 236, 238; Soccer: 67), or blast-related (Blast: 56, 93, 120, 126, 151, 188, 192, 218, 253) or the age of the injured person (Infants Senior
40、s: 122, 124, 178-180, 226), and there are even a few studies of animals who routinely receive head impact without injury (Non-Injurious: 59, 68, 79). Many of the references focus on the injuries themselves, either involving the brain (1-7, 12, 13, 20, 21, 28, 36, 38, 46-51, 53, 55, 57, 62, 64, 66, 6
41、9-74, 76, 81-83, 86, 88, 98, 99, 107, 108, 111, 112, 117, 121, 128, 129, 131, 134, 135, 142-145, 153, 164-166, 168, 170, 171, 183, 184, 187, 201, 203, 206, 210, 211, 213, 221, 223, 225, 227, 231, 233, 240, 241, 245, 247, 249, 251) or skin, bones and sensory organs (15, 23, 25, 37, 39, 45, 54, 85, 91
42、, 94, 96, 97, 102, 103, 116, 127, 138, 141, 154, 167, 169, 189, 193, 199, 200, 207, 208, 219, 235, 242-244). Several of the publications provide general anatomical and physiological information (Anatomy FEM (Finite Element Modeling) and Computer Models: 8, 32, 63, 100, 101, 113, 194, 222, 229, 250,
43、254; Imaging: 89, 90, 118, 190, 214, 215, 232) and on methodologies for quantifying injury (Injury Scaling: 27, 75, 130). Anatomy and Function The head may be described as consisting of three components: the bony skull (cranial and facial bones); the skin and other soft tissue covering the skull; an
44、d the contents of the skull (most notably the brain, the brains protective membranes me- ninges and numerous blood vessels) (Figure 1). Figure 1. The scalp, skull, meninges, and brain. The scalp consists of five layers arranged as follows (going from superficial to deep): skin; connective tissue (su
45、bcutaneous); aponeurosis epicranialis; loose connective tissue; and pericranium. (A useful pneumonic utilizes the fact that the first letter of the name of each layer spells “scalp” (Figure 2). The first scalp layer, the skin, typically has thickness on the order of one-quarter inch and is composed
46、of two major sub-layers: a superficial epidermis and a deep dermis.2 The second layer, the subcutaneous connective tissue, is richly supplied with blood vessels and so lacerations extending to this level are likely to be associated with bleeding. Furthermore, the blood vessels are so firmly supporte
47、d that they cannot retract if lacerated and thereby “seal” themselves, as would normally be the case. Therefore, hemor- rhage resulting from a cut that includes this layer may be greater than otherwise expected. The third layer, the “aponeurosis epicranialis” or just “aponeurosis,” is a strong membr
48、aneous sheath that provides a helmet-shaped covering of the top of the head and, therefore, is also referred to as the “galea” (helmet). It has at least two important functions with regard to injury. First, it tends to act as a protective barrier. Second, it limits the extent of lacerations of the first two layers. That is, the scalp muscles located in this layer are arranged so that they tend to pull at the
