1、A- IAlternative Fuels Guidebookc Properties, Storage, Dispensing, and Vehicle Facility Modifications Richard L. Bechtold, P.E. OAA INTERNATIONAL Society ofAutomotive Engineers, Inc. Warrendale, Pa.Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Copyright 1997 Society ofAutomotive Engineers, Inc. 4
2、00Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Phone: (412) 776-4841; Fax: (412) 776-5760 http:/www.sae.org ISBN 0-7680-0052-1 All rights reserved. Printed in theUnited States ofAmerica. Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients,
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4、r No. R-180 Bechtold, Richard L., 1952- Alternative fuels guidebook: properties, storage, dispensing, and vehicle facility modifications /Richard L. Bechtold. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7680-0052-1 (hardcover) 1. Internal combustion engines, Spark ignition-Alternate
5、 fuels. I. Title. TP343.B37 1997 662.6-dc2l 97-27727 CIPPreface I have been fortunate to be involved with alternative fuels for vehicles over the past 20 years. During that time, alternative fuels have evolved from experiments conducted in research laboratories to use by the public. I have personall
6、y been involved with vehicle modification to use alternative fuels, and more recently, design and installation of alternative fuel refueling facilities and modification of existing garages for safe storage and maintenance of alternative fuel vehicles. This experience includesundergroundandabove-grou
7、ndmethanol refueling sys- tems, compressed natural gas refueling systems, the Maryland Mass Transit Administration liquefied natural gas transit bus refueling system, and the Greater Richmond Transit Company electric bus recharging facility. The information herein includes the fundamentals that I ha
8、ve found to be essential to understand- ing the physical and chemical properties ofalternative fuels andhow they impact refueling system design and modifications ofexisting garages for safety purposes. As such, it is acombination ofreference and general guide forengineers and fleet managers whosejob
9、 is to implement alternative fuel vehicles. R.L. Bechtold April 1997 iiiTable of Contents Introduction 1 Chapter One-Alternative Fuels and Their Origins S 5 The Alcohols5 Methanol6 Production7 Vehicle Emissions Characteristics .9.9 Vehicle Performance Impacts . . 11 Ethanol 13 Production 14 Vehicle
10、Emissions Characteristics 16 Vehicle Performance Impacts . . 17 Natural Gas 18 Production 19 Vehicle Emissions Characteristics 20 Light-Duty Vehicles 21 Heavy-Duty Vehicles 22 Vehicle Performance Characteristics 23 Light-Duty Vehicles 23 Heavy-Duty Vehicles 23 LPGas 24 Production 25 Vehicle Emission
11、s Charactenstics 25 Light-Duty Vehicles 26 Heavy-Duty Vehicles 27 Vehicle Performance Characteristics 27 Light-Duty Vehicles 27 Heavy-Duty Vehicles 28 vAlternative Fuels Guidebook Vegetable Oils 29 Production 30 Vehicle Emissions Characteristics 30 Vehicle Performance Characteristics 31 Hydrogen 32
12、Production 33 Vehicle Emissions Characteristics . .33 Vehicle Performance Characteristics 33 Sources ofAdditional Information 34 References39 Chapter Two-Properties and Specifications . 43 The Alcohols 47 Methanol. 47 Ethanol 52 M85 and E85. 56 NaturalGas .59 Compressed Natural Gas . 62 Liquefied Na
13、tural Gas 64 LPGas 65 Vegetable Oils 68 Hydrogen 71 Sources of Additional Information 74 References 75 Chapter Three-Materials Compatibility 79 The Alcohols.80 Methanol. 80 Ethanol 83 Natural Gas 84 Compressed Natural Gas 85 Liquefied Natural Gas 86 LPGas . 87 Vegetable Oils 89 Hydrogen 90 Reference
14、s 91 viTable ofContents Chapter Four-Storage and Dispensing .93 The Alcohols 97 Methanol.97 Tanks . 98 Piping 100 Dispensers100 Miscellaneous Components . 102 Leak Detection Systems . 102 Fire Suppression Systems . 103 Lightning Protection . 103 Ethanol. 103 Tanks . 104 Piping . 105 Dispensers. 105
15、Leak Detection Systems . 107 Fire Suppression Systems . 107 Lightning Protection . 107 Natural Gas 107 Compressed Natural Gas . 108 Compressors. 109 Storage. 110 Piping 111 Dispensers. 112 Control Systems. 113 Leak Detection Systems. 113 Fire Suppression Systems . 114 Lightning Protection . 114 Liqu
16、efied Natural Gas . 115 Storage. 116 Piping . 117 Dispensers. 118 Control Systems. 119 Leak Detection Systems . 120 Fire Suppression Systems . 120 Lightning Protection . 121 LNG-to-CNGSystems. 121 viiAlternative Fuels Guidebook LPGas . 122 Storage. 123 Piping 124 Dispensers. 124 Control Systems. 125
17、 Leak Detection Systems. 125 Fire Suppression Systems . 125 Lightning Protection. 126 Vegetable Oils. 126 Storage. 126 Piping. 126 Dispensers. 127 Control Systems 127 Leak Detection Systems. 127 Fire Suppression Systems. 128 Lightning Protection. 128 Hydrogen. 128 Storage. 129 Piping. 129 Dispensers
18、. 129 Control Systems. 130 Leak Detection Systems . 130 Fire Suppression Systems . 130 Sources ofAdditional Information . 131 References 134 Chapter Five-Refueling Facility Installation and Garage Facility Modifications. 137 Building Codes. 137 The Alcohols. 139 Location of Storage Tanks 140 Above-G
19、round Tanks. 140 Underground Tanks. 141 Location and Installation ofFuel Dispensers . 141 Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities . 141 Fire Protection. 141 IviiiTable of Contents Natural Gas . 142 Compressed Natural Gas . 142 Location of Storage Tanks . 142 Location and Installation ofFuel Dispe
20、nsers . 143 Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities . 144 Fire Protection. 150 Liquefied Natural Gas . 150 Location of Storage Tanks . 151 Location and Installation ofFuel Dispensers . 152 Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities . 153 Fire Protection. 154 LPGas . 154 Location of Storage Tanks
21、. 154 Location and Installation ofFuel Dispensers 155 Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities . 155 Fire Protection. 156 Vegetable Oils. 156 Location ofStorage Tanks . 156 Location and Installation ofFuel Dispensers 156 Vehicle Storage and Maintenance Facilities . 156 Fire Protection. 157 Hydroge
22、n. 157 Electricity . 157 Sizing ofCharger Service . 158 Location ofChargers . 159 Vehicle Charging Facilities. 159 Fire Protection. 161 Sources ofAdditional Information . 161 References. 168 Chapter Six-Glossary ofTerms . 171 Index 181 About the Author 203 ixIntroduction The term “alternative fuel“
23、has been used to describe any fuel suggested for use in transportation vehicles other than gasoline or diesel fuel. In many ways, the current situation regarding fuels fortransportation vehicles resembles the time in the early 1900s when vehicle buyers could choose among internal-combustion, steam,
24、or electric vehicles. During this period, there were great debates about which fuels were best-even Henry Ford envisioned many of todays concerns about fuel availability and the environment by investigating the use ofethanol as a renewable, home-grown fuel whose production would benefit agriculture.
25、 The wide availability of inexpensive gasoline as a by-product of kerosene refining (for lighting purposes) was surely a large factor in the subsequent success of the internal-combustion engine in transportation vehicles. Both steam and electric vehicles had characteristics much desired by consumers
26、 at the time such as low noise and good driveability. However, drawbacks such as lengthy start-up time and complexity of operation (steam vehicles) and short driving range (electrics) conspired to limit their appeal. With the advent of the electric starter, internal- combustion-engine vehicles achie
27、ved acombination ofeconomy, range, and ease of use that steam and electric vehicles could not match. From the demise of steamand electric vehicles, internal-combustion vehicles using gasoline and die- sel fuel have enjoyed virtually complete dominance of the market. Ongoing development overtime has
28、resulted in very durable and reliable vehicles that are safe and less damaging to the environment than ever before. The original impetus for development of alternative fuels to gasoline and diesel fuel was the realization that the oil-producing nations that held the majority of the worlds reserves h
29、ad the power to dictate the price and availability of what The extent and completeness of this power is a topic ofmuch debate, but there is no disagree- ment that the potential exists formuch greateruse ofmonopolistic powers ifcoordinated efforts by oil-producing nations are applied. 1Alternative Fu
30、els Guidebook had become a truly intemational commodity. The U.S., several European coun- tries, and Japan have led the development of altemative fuels because they have becomedependenton oil imports to satisfy theirtransportation vehicle fuel needs. Today, the U.S. highway transportation sector is
31、essentially totally dependent on petroleum fuels, making transportation very vulnerable to oil shortages and sudden price increases. The U.S. now uses more petroleum fuels in light-duty vehicles than allof its domestic oil production. Growth in light-duty vehicle fuel consumption is projected to be
32、0.8% through the year 2015, and for heavy-duty vehicles the fuel consumption growth rate is projected to be 1.3%. At the same time, growth in net oil imports is projected to be 1.9%, which predicts an ever- widening gap between petroleum consumption and domestic production.2 Other petroleum-using se
33、ctors ofthe U.S. such as industry and utilities have made pro- visions to switch to fuels otherthan oil, while the transportation sectorhas not. It is this dependence on petroleum fuels that is prodding the use ofalternative fuels in transportation. Through experimentation with alternative fuels, it
34、 soon became clear that alter- native fuels had inherent environmental advantages as well. Each alternative fuel has some characteristic that gives it an environmental advantage over petro- leum fuels. Most are lessdamaging to theenvironment ifspilled, and, in general, the emissions from alternative
35、 fuels are less reactive. This results in reduced amounts ofozone beingproduced with the benefitofimproved air quality. In the 1980s there was less concern about energy security in the U.S., but the environ- mental advantages ofalternative fuels kept interest high. In the 1990s the pendu- lum has sw
36、ung back to the energy security value of alternative fuels. U.S. dependence on foreign oil, particularly for transportation, has assumed a steady increase approaching levels in the past when oil shortages or price shocks have occurred. Another reason interest in alternative fuels has again centered
37、on energy security is because emission control technology combined with cleaner petroleum fuels such as reformulated gasoline and “clean diesel“ has resulted in emission levels low enough to significantly depreciate the emissions benefits of alternative fuels. 2 U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Inf
38、ormation Administration, A1996 Annual Energy Out- look - 1996 - With Projections to 2015, DOE/EIA-0383(96), January 1996, National En- ergy Information Center, EI-231, Energy Information Administration, ForrestalBuilding,Room lF-048, Washington, D.C. 20585. 2Introduction The initial work on alternat
39、ive fuels focused on which one was best from the viewpoint oftechnical feasibility, production capability, and cost. That question was never answered with certainty and, in the interim, development of alterna- tive fuel vehicle technology hasproceeded in parallel. Technical feasibility is no longer
40、questioned, and the focus now has shifted more toward which alternative fuels can be produced at a competitive cost. Cost is calculated in terms not only of fuel price, but vehicle price and operating characteristics, and the expense of developing a national fuel distribution infrastructure. In addi
41、tion, new issues such as public awareness and training of vehicle maintenance personnel have arisen as the use of alternative fuel vehicles spreads. Professions only peripher- ally awareofvehicle technology, such as professional engineers thatmustdesign vehicle storage and maintenance facilities, wi
42、ll need tobecome familiar with the physical characteristics and safe handling practices ofalternative fuels. Building code and standards-setting organizations are slowly gaining the necessary infor- mation to address alternative fuels, though the process for change ofcodes and standards is a thoroug
43、h one that takes many years to complete. Alternative fuel vehicles will likely become more prevalent throughout the U.S. as a result ofthe passage and implementation ofthe Energy Policy Act of 1992, known asEPACT. EPACT requires the Federal government, state governments, and companies producing alte
44、rnative fuels (fuel providers) to purchase alterna- tive fuel vehicles as part of their new vehicle acquisitions. The Federal govern- ment has to date acquired approximately 15,000 alternative fuel vehicles, and the regulations for state and fuel providers to begin to acquire alternative fuel vehicl
45、es went into effecton March 16, 1996.3 EPACT also includes provisions for requiring private and local fleets to purchase alternative fuel vehicles if it is determined that the petroleum displacement caused by Federal, state, and fuel provider alternative fuel vehicles is insufficient to meet the pet
46、roleum displace- ment goals ofEPACT (if enacted, this mandate would take effect in 2002). The U.S. Energy Information Administration estimates that within ten years, annual sales of alternative fuel vehicles could exceed one million per year because of state mandates in addition toEPACTand frommarke
47、t-driven sales ofalternative 3 Federal Register, Vol. 61, No. 51, Thursday, March 14, 1996, p. 10622. 3Alternative Fuels Guidebook fuel vehicles.4 These alternative fuel vehicles will create substantial demand for new fuel storage and dispensing facilities, and for modifications of existing faciliti
48、es. The objective of this book is to inform engineers and other interested parties about alternative fuels. It is directed at the professionals whose responsibilities require a working knowledge of alternative fuels, and who need a ready refer- ence to informand guidethem in making decisions in thei
49、rwork. It concentrates on altemative fuels, their properties, characteristics, materials compatibility, and safe handling practices. Itdoes not attempt to include the vehicle technology for using alternative fuels, nor their efficiency and emissions characteristics. These are changing very rapidly and are therefore not conducive for inclusion in a text meant to have more lasting content. The alternative fuels included in this book are those which are considered the most likely candidates for use in internal-combustion engines and future energy conversion devices such as fuel cells. Th
