1、IMPROVING AIR QUALITY Progress and Challenges for the Auto Industry John K. PearsonImproving Air Quality Progress and Challenges for the Auto IndustryOther SAE books on this topic Cleaner Cars: The History and Technology of Emission Control Since the 1960s By J. Robert Mondt (Order No. R-226) Emissi
2、ons and Air Quality By Hans Peter Lenz and Christian Cozzarini (Order No. R-237) For more information or to order this book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; (724) 776-4970; fax (724) 776-0790; e-mail: publicationssae.org; web site: www.sae.org/BOOKSTORE.Improving Ai
3、r Quality Progress and Challenges for the Auto Industry John K. Pearson Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. Warrendale, Pa. Copyright 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. eISBN: 978-0-7680-6483-4Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Pearson, John K., 1946- Improving air quality
4、: progress and challenges for the auto industry / John K. Pearson. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-7680-0236-2 1. Motor vehiclesMotorsExhaust gas Environmental aspects. 2. AirPollution. 3. Air quality management I. title. TD886.5.P43 2001 363.73874dc21 00-045069 Copyrigh
5、t 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Phone: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760 E-mail: publicationssae.org http:/www.sae.org ISBN 0-7680-0236-2 All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America Permission to photocopy for int
6、ernal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted by SAE for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the base fee of $.50 per page is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr., Danvers, MA 01923. Special requests
7、 should be addressed to the SAE Publications Group. 0-7680-0236-2/01-$.50. SAE Order No. R-232 ivContents List of Figures vii Foreword ix Acknowledgments xi Chapter 1 The Sources of Air Pollution 1 Pollutants in the atmosphere, their relative importance, their effects in the short and long terms, an
8、d their influence on health. Chapter 2 Tackling the Problem by Legislation 21 A review of the United States and European driving forces in air quality. Legislation and how it is drafted and implemented. Best available technology vs. the scientific approach. Chapter 3 Air Quality Models 39 The air qu
9、ality modela policy tool for setting air quality standards. The types of models available and their relative strengths and weaknesses. How the models are applied in Europe and the United States. Chapter 4 Emissions Inventories 61 The importance of emissions inventories for man-made and biogenic sour
10、ces of pollution. A comparison of U.S. and European approaches in constructing inventories. The influ- ence of VOCs and NOx on ozone formation. Chapter 5 The United States Air Quality Improvement Research Program (U.S. AQIRP) 81 The U.S. AQIRP Program is summarized, which sets the scene for Europe.
11、vChapter 6 The European Auto Oil Programme 95 The impacts of fuel reformulation and improved engine technology on future air quality are quantified. Cost ben- efits of technical measures are compared. Chapter 7 Improvements in Air Quality 141 Air quality measurement and monitoring. Source-receptor t
12、echniques. Forthcoming vehicle emissions standards. Industry-led improvements. Chapter 8 The Way Forward 167 Building upon the experience of the U.S. and European Auto Oil Programs. A simple approach the engineer can use to assess how air quality can be improved internationally. Glossary 187 Abbrevi
13、ations 197 Index 203 About the Author 225 viList of Figures Figure 1.1 European mass distribution of sulfur dioxide in ambient air. Figure 1.2 European mass distribution of nitrogen oxides in ambient air. Figure 1.3 European mass distribution of VOCs in ambient air. Figure 1.4 Mass distribution of p
14、rimary particles (PM10 and PM2.5) in European ambient air. Figure 1.5 Simplified chemical explanation for ozone formation in urban air. Figure 1.6 The relative contribution of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Figure 2.1 Flow chart of the decision making process in air quality management. Figure 3
15、.1 Schematic diagram of a reactive air quality model. Figure 3.2 Emissions reductions required to meet an air quality target. Figure 3.3 EMEP grid for predicting ozone in Europe. Figure 3.4 UK ozone predictions for 1980. Figure 3.5 UK ozone predictions for 1995. Figure 3.6 Typical Eulerian grid for
16、a European city. Figure 4.1 Reactivity weighted European VOC sources. Figure 4.2 Ozone isoplethslines of constant ozone level. Figure 4.3 The structure of the CORINAIR Emissions Inventory. Figure 4.4 UK emissions and sources of PM10, 19701996. Figure 6.1 Typical hydrocarbon exhaust speciation from g
17、asoline tests. Figure 6.2 Process of non-reactive air quality modeling. Figure 6.3 NOx reductions required in the seven cities of Europe. viiFigure 6.4 The Athens NOx problem (1990). Figure 6.5 EMEP ozone predictions going from south to north. Figure 6.6 EMEP ozone predictions of zero traffic. Figur
18、e 6.7 Calculated ozone concentrations downwind of London for differing global NOx and VOC emissions levels. Figure 6.8 Calculation of ozone levels downwind of London for differing road transport NOx and VOC emissions levels. Figure 6.9 Predicted ozone concentrations downwind of Athens for differing
19、road transport NOx and VOC emissions levels. Figure 6.10 Cost curve for EU urban NOx reduction. Figure 7.1 Source receptor relationships. Figure 7.2 State of the art heavy-duty vehicles and the future challenge. Figure 7.3 Carbon monoxide and nitrogen oxides emissions from a dual- fueled gasoline an
20、d natural gas vehicle during the FTP 75 cycle. Figure 7.4 Comparison of diesel versus natural gas emissions using the real bus cycle. Figure 7.5 Filter regeneration in diesel engines. Figure 8.1 European NOx reductions required. Figure 8.2 The European regional ozone problem. Figure 8.3 The European
21、 air quality challenge. viiiForeword by Sir Geoffrey Allen, FRS, FREng. Global warming is a major environmental issue. However, there is consid- erable margin of uncertainty and in some quarters doubts remain about its significance beyond the cyclical fluctuations in the distribution of tempera- tur
22、e on the earths surface. One environmental concern established beyond reasonable doubt is the threat to air quality and so to the health of humans, animals and plants posed by emissions from ever increasing numbers of automobilescars, buses, trucks and other vehicles of locomotion powered by gasolin
23、e or diesel fuels. It is an issue on which some progress has been made as a result of a concerted attack by automobile manufacturers, oil companies, and governments work- ing together, notably in the U.S. and more recently in the EU. There is much to learn both scientifically and technically about t
24、he origins of pollutants and their effects on the quality of life. Governments and their legisla- tors are exploring with more confidence the implementation of policies based on the prospects for abatement arising from engine design, fuel formulation and better automobile maintenance, and prediction
25、s based on air quality models. Industrial and biogenic sources of emissions have to be taken into account when building air quality models. Though biogenic emissions from trees and plants remain major uncertainties even in the EU and U.S., the models and particularly emission inventories are gradual
26、ly being improved. They are guides which serve to inform the policy behind evolving air quality legislation. This monograph is aimed principally at U.S. and European automobile engi- neers. It presents a clear and readable account of the present state of knowl- edge and current practices beginning w
27、ith the nature of air pollutants, the sources and their real and potential effects on health. The role of legislators and the status of current legislation is then reviewed. Two important and informative ixchapters on air quality modelling and emissions inventories and their bearing on evolving poli
28、cy for the setting of air quality standards follow. The core of the book is based on the authors involvement in the European Auto Oil Programme and familiarity with the U.S. Auto Oil Air Quality Improvement Program. Both are significant milestones in the willingness of automobile makers and oil comp
29、anies to share operating experience and predictions with governments. The resulting improved engine technology, fuel reformulation, and their cost benefits are being monitored by system- atic air quality measurements and the information underpins new legislation. The final chapter is unique in my ex
30、perience. It is a simple guide, aimed at U.S. and EU automobile engineers, for use in the assessment of air quality and based on the Auto Oil Programs combined with emissions inventories. In fact it will be useful in countries outside the EU and U.S. A path is set for engineers to explore and one wh
31、ich offers scope for experiment. It is not overprescriptive but allows the practitioner to make measured excursions and use local variations within the framework. This is a book full of purpose, insight, and common sense. There are interest- ing, practical ideas for improvement of the environment. A
32、n atmosphere of enthusiasm pervades the book. The need for cooperation and understanding between the key players is paramount. Though primarily aimed at automobile engineers, the book is much more than useful reading for other members of the teams addressing air qualitylegislators, industrialists, p
33、oliticians, and above all ordinary folk who drive automobiles. Sir Geoffrey Allen, FRS, FREng. Member of The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution Chancellor of The University of East Anglia, England xAcknowledgments After a 30-year career with the Royal Dutch Shell Group, I have been work- in
34、g as an industrialist with technical experts and European Member States on air quality. I have particularly appreciated the detailed discussions on air quality with Sir Geoffrey Allen, Dr. Ruth Baumann of the Austrian Federal Environment Agency, and Dr. Richard Derwent of the UK Meteorological Offic
35、e. Particular thanks are due to Richard Derwent, who has read through most of the text of this book and made invaluable comments. Recently, I enjoyed working on an atmospheric science paper for the American Chemistry Council with Professor Michael Pilling of the University of Leeds, UK, and Dr. Jack
36、 Calvert of the National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado, U.S. The many technical discussions on air quality, which I continue to share with both of these gentlemen, are greatly appreciated. I would also like to thank June Ford, who has drawn the figures in this book. Her artistic
37、 work is appreciated. Finally, I would like to thank my family. It takes enthusiasm and perseverance to write a book, and my gratitude goes to my wife, June, and my daughter, Adle, for their encouragement and interest in my work on air quality. Air quality encompasses everything from science and pol
38、itics to economics. The approaches in resolving the problem of air pollution in the United States and Europe are different, and it has been my privilege to work on both sides of the Atlantic on “the air quality challenge.“ John K. Pearson Christleton, Chester, England March 2000 xiChapter 1 The Sour
39、ces of Air Pollution Summary Air pollution consists of a combination of chemical substances in the atmo- sphere, many of which are transported from other regions. This chapter assesses the health impacts and sources of the main atmospheric pollutants in the air that we breathe. Carbon monoxide (CO),
40、 an odorless and colorless gas, is becoming a pollutant of historic interest because of the substantial reductions in CO levels achieved through modern gasoline vehicle technol- ogy. Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are recognized pollutants and precursors for groun
41、d-level ozone formation, will be the main challenges in the next decade. While the presence of particulate matter in air pollution focuses public atten- tion on diesel engine exhaust, secondary particles such as ammonium sulfates and nitrates form a substantial part of the particle inventory, and ar
42、e likely to decline in the next decade. Toxic organic micropollutants, such as polyaromatic hydrocarbons, are very much a concern of automobile engineers, because of their link to vehicle exhausts and impending legislation. Although vehicle exhaust has an influence on all of these pollutants, it is
43、by no means the only source. Indeed, it is essential to consider all man-made sources from industry, as well as natural or biogenic sources, in order to improve air quality. 1Chapter 1 Introduction Many of us will recall the winter smog of the 1950s in Europea combination of smoke and fogand the nee
44、d to put a scarf or handkerchief over ones mouth when venturing outside. In those days, we were remarkably tolerant of smog, almost accepting that it was a fact of life in winter. We heated our homes with coal fires, and factories belched out smoke as we traveled to the city by steam train. Occasion
45、ally, we had the luxury of riding in a motor car. This was considered very much a symbol of quality of life. The main concern seemed to be the grimy buildings, which needed to be cleaned every so often. We knew that human health was affected, but our priorities were different. Indeed, if we had to l
46、ist the sources of this smog pollution in those early days, we probably would have excluded motor vehicles and no one would have even understood the term “fuel reformulation.“ Time has moved on. Nowadays, concern is expressed about how to arrest global warming and minimize the impact of air pollutio
47、n on the living environ- ment, and how we can improve air quality. We realize that the air that we breathe is not precisely 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen, but very much a cocktail of chemical compounds, of which oxygen and nitrogen are major components. Other compounds that we breathe each day include
48、 carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons (the most notorious of which is benzene), nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide (both referred to as nitrogen oxides), small particles or particulatessome of which are formed by chemical reaction in the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide, and ozone. Let us examine each pollutant i
49、n turn and make a first assessment of their relative importance and influence on our health. Carbon Monoxide Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas formed in combustion chambers due to an insufficient supply of oxygen (1). Inside buildings, major sources include cigarette smoke (2), domestic fuel-burning equipment, and gas cooking appli- ances. Outside, the principal source, which accounts for nearly 90% of carbon 2The Sources of Air Pollution monoxide, is exhaust from gasoline engines, with bonfires, forest fires and waste treatment and disposal processes forming a large
