1、Automotive Fuels Reference Book R-297_book.indb 1 1/21/14 12:55 PMOther SAE books of interest: Fuel/Engine Interactions By Gautam Kalghatgi (Product Code: R-409) Future Automotive Fuels and Energy Technology Profile By Bruce Morey (Product Code: T-128) Automotive 2010North America By Bruce Morey (Pr
2、oduct Code: T-127) For more information or to order a book, contact: SAE INTERNATIONAL 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096 Phone: +1.877.606.7323 (U.S. and Canada only) or +1.724.776.4970 (outside U.S. and Canada) Fax: +1.724.776.0790 Email: CustomerServicesae.org Website: books.sae.org R-29
3、7_book.indb 2 1/21/14 12:55 PMAutomotive Fuels Reference Book Third Edition By Paul Richards Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA R-297_book.indb 3 1/21/14 12:55 PM Copyright 2014 SAE International eISBN: 978-0-7680-8102-2 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org
4、Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada) 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Copyright 2014 SAE International. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distributed, or transmitted, in any form or by any means without the prior writ
5、ten permission of SAE International. For permission and licensing requests, contact SAE Permissions, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA; email: copyrightsae.org; phone: 724-772-4028; fax: 724-772-9765. ISBN 978-0-7680-0638-4 SAE Order Number R-297 DOI 10.4271/R-297 Library of Cong
6、ress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Richards, Paul, 1956Automotive fuels reference book / by Paul Richards. Third edition.pages cmBased on work originally published as Automotive fuels handbook / K. Owen.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 978-0-7680-0638-41. Motor fuelsHandbooks, man
7、uals, etc. I. Owen, K. (Keith). Automotive fuels handbook. II. Title.TP343.R495 2014629.25 38dc23 2013041897Information contained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or com
8、pleteness of any information published herein and neither SAE International nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its authors are supplying informatio
9、n, but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assis- tance of an appropriate professional should be sought. To purchase bulk quantities, please contact: SAE Customer Service Email: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside
10、 USA and Canada) 724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Visit the SAE Bookstore at BOOKS.SAE.ORG R-297_book.indb 4 1/21/14 12:55 PMTo Bernard and the memory of Rita. R-297_book.indb 5 1/21/14 12:55 PMR-297_book.indb 6 1/21/14 12:55 PMvii Contents Preface to Third Edition xxiii Preface to Secon
11、d Edition . xxv Preface to First Edition .xxvii Chapter 1 Automotive Fuels and Their Specification 1 References . 6 Chapter 2 A History of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel Development .92.1 Gasoline . 92.1.1 The Evolution of the Gasoline Engine 92.1.2 Gasoline Development 112.2 Diesel Fuel 192.2.1 The Evolu
12、tion of the Diesel Engine . 192.2.2 Diesel Fuel Development . 24References . 28Further Reading 29 Chapter 3 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Crude Oil 313.1 Introduction. 313.2 Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13、 . .313.3 Influence of Product Demand Pattern on Processing 323.4 Distillation 35 3.5 Cracking Processes . 383.5.1 Thermal Cracking 393.5.2 Visbreaking . 403.5.3 Coking . 403.5.4 Catalytic Cracking . 423.5.5 Hydrocracking 453.5.5.1 Catalytic Distillate Dewaxing . 453.5.6 Steam Cracking 46 R-297_book
14、.indb 7 1/21/14 12:55 PMviii Contents3.6 Catalytic Reforming 473.7 Alkylation, Isomerization, and Polymerization. 493.7.1 Alkylation 493.7.2 Isomerization 503.7.3 Polymerization 513.8 Finishing Processes. 513.8.1 Caustic Washing . 513.8.2 Merox Treating 513.8.3 Hydrodesulfurization 523.8.3.1 Sources
15、 of Hydrogen 533.9 Oxygenated Gasoline Components . 53 3.9.1 Alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .54 3.9.2 Ethers 553.10 Gasoline Blending 55 3.10.1 Blending Operations . 57 3.10.2 Blending Calculations 58 3.10.3 Octane Blending . 58 3.1
16、0.4 Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP) Blending 60 3.10.5 ASTM Distillation Blending . 603.11 Diesel Fuel Blending . 60 3.11.1 Diesel Blending Operations . 61 3.11.2 Diesel Blend Calculations . 62References . 64Further Reading 67 Chapter 4 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from NonCrude Oil Fossil Sour
17、ces 694.1 Introduction. 694.2 Coal 694.2.1 Syn- Gas Production 714.2.2 F- T Synthesis 734.2.3 Product Upgrading. 764.2.3.1 Hydrocracking 764.2.3.2 Oligomerization 774.2.3.3 Catalytic Reforming . 774.2.3.4 Alcohol Dehydration 774.3 Gas to Liquids . 774.4 Gaseous Fuels . 804.4.1 Gaseous Fuel Supply .
18、814.4.2 Gaseous Fuel Composition and Properties. 824.4.2.1 Gaseous Fuel Components . 824.4.2.2 Wobbe Index and Fuel Metering. 844.4.2.3 Propensity to Knock: Octane and Methane Numbers 87 R-297_book.indb 8 1/21/14 12:55 PMix Contents4.4.2.4 Effect of Gaseous Fuel Composition on Emissions . 894.4.3 Ga
19、seous Fuels Dispensing and Storage 914.4.3.1 Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) 914.4.3.2 Recommended Practice for CNG: SAE J1616 934.4.3.3 LNG Dispensing and Storage . 944.4.3.4 LPG Dispensing and Storage 964.4.4 Gaseous- Fuel Engine Technology 964.4.4.1 Fuel Metering Systems . 964.4.4.2 Spark- Ignition
20、Engines. 974.4.4.3 Dual- Fuel (Compression Ignition) Engines 984.5 Oil Sands Fuel . 994.5.1 Oil Sands Extraction and Processing . 1004.5.1.1 Surface Mining 1004.5.1.2 Subterranean Recovery . 1034.5.1.3 In Situ Processing 1044.6 Oil Shale Fuel 1044.6.1 Oil Shale Mining and Processing 1054.6.2 In Situ
21、 Retorting 105References . 106Further Reading 111 Chapter 5 Manufacture of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel from Renewable Sources .1135.1 Introduction 1135.2 Minimally Processed Vegetable Oil 1165.3 Bio- Ethanol 1175.3.1 Ethanol from Sugar Crops 1185.3.2 Ethanol from Grain Crops 1195.3.3 Lignocellulosic Et
22、hanol 1215.4 Biodiesel Fuel 1225.5 Hydrotreated Vegetable Oil 127References . 130Further Reading 136 Chapter 6 Storage, Distribution, and Handling of Gasoline and Diesel Fuel. 1376.1 Introduction 1376.2 Safety Considerations for Storage and Handling 1386.2.1 Flash Point . 1386.2.2 Electrical Conduct
23、ivity 1386.3 Health and Environmental Effects of Gasoline 1386.3.1 Health Aspects . 139 R-297_book.indb 9 1/21/14 12:55 PMx Contents6.3.1.1 Inhalation . 1396.3.1.2 Ingestion 1396.3.1.3 Aspiration. 1396.3.1.4 Skin Contact. 1396.3.1.5 Eye Contact . 1406.3.2 Exposure Limits 1406.3.3 Ecotoxicity . 1406.
24、3.4 Disposal . 1416.4 Health and Environmental Effects of Diesel Fuel 1416.4.1 Health Aspects . 1416.4.1.1 Inhalation . 1416.4.1.2 Ingestion 1416.4.1.3 Aspiration. 1416.4.1.4 Skin Contact. 1426.4.1.5 Eye Contact . 1426.4.2 Exposure Limits 1426.4.3 Ecotoxicity . 1426.4.4 Disposal . 1426.5 Influences
25、on Product Quality during Distribution 1426.5.1 Sea Transport. 1426.5.2 Pipeline 1436.5.3 Road and Rail 1446.6 Influences on Product Quality during Storage. 1456.6.1 Water Contamination in Tankage 1466.6.2 Microbiological Contamination . 1466.6.3 Sludge in Tankage. 1466.6.4 Evaporative Losses 1476.6
26、.5 Oxidation 1476.7 Considerations with Oxygenated Blends . 1486.7.1 Environmental Aspects of Fuels Containing MTBE 1496.7.2 Water Sensitivity of Alcohol Blends 1516.7.3 Safety and Fire Protection for Alcohol Blends . 1556.7.4 Oxidation Stability of Biodiesel . 1556.7.5 Cold Stability of Biodiesel 1
27、57References . 158Further Reading 160 Chapter 7 Positive Ignition Engine Combustion Process 1617.1 Normal Combustion. 1617.1.1 Mixture Requirements . 1617.1.2 The Combustion Process . 1627.2 Spark Knock . 1647.2.1 How Spark Knock Occurs 1647.3 Measurement of Gasoline Antiknock Quality . 167 R-297_bo
28、ok.indb 10 1/21/14 12:55 PMxi Contents7.3.1 Research and Motor Octane Number 1677.3.2 Road Octane Number . 1707.3.3 Octane Index and Modern Engines 1727.3.4 Influence of Chemical Structure on Octane Quality 1757.4 Antiknock Additives 1767.4.1 Lead Alkyls 1767.4.2 MMTMethylcyclopentadienyl Manganese
29、Tricarbonyl . 1807.4.3 Other Metallic Antiknocks . 1817.4.4 Organic Antiknocks . 1827.4.5 Oxygenated Blending Components 1837.5 Octane Blending 1847.6 Octane Requirements of Vehicles and Engines 1857.6.1 Vehicles with Knock Sensor Systems. 1877.6.2 Data Analysis. 1887.6.3 Octane Rating of Fuels Usin
30、g Vehicles or Engines . 1897.6.4 Engine and Other Factors That Influence Octane Requirements 1917.7 Octane Requirement Increase (ORI) . 1937.8 Other Abnormal Combustion Phenomena 1947.8.1 Pre- Ignition 1947.8.1.1 Fuel Quality Effects on Pre- Ignition. 1967.8.1.2 Deposits and Pre- Ignition . 1967.8.1
31、.3 Inherent Fuel Resistance to Pre- Ignition . 1977.8.2 Misfire. 1997.8.3 Run- On 201References . 202Further Reading 211 Chapter 8 Gasoline Engine Design and Influence of Fuel Characteristics 2138.1 Introduction 2138.2 The Gasoline Engine. 2148.2.1 Otto Cycle . 2148.2.2 The Atkinson Cycle . 2168.2.3
32、 The Miller Cycle 2188.3 Vehicle Fuel Systems 2188.3.1 The Fuel Metering System 2188.3.1.1 Carburetors . 2198.3.1.2 Throttle Body Fuel Injection . 2218.3.1.3 Port Fuel Injection 2238.3.1.4 Direct Fuel Injection 2258.3.2 The Fuel Tank and Pump. 2288.4 Ignition Systems 2298.5 Combustion and Exhaust Em
33、ission Control Systems . 230 R-297_book.indb 11 1/21/14 12:55 PMxii Contents8.5.1 Combustion Chamber Configuration 2308.5.1.1 Combustion Chamber Shape. 2308.5.1.2 Valve Layouts . 2318.5.2 The Effect of Air- to- Fuel Ratio 2328.5.3 Exhaust Aftertreatment Systems 2348.5.3.1 Oxidation Catalysts. 2348.5
34、.3.2 Thr ee- W ay Catalysts 2358.5.3.3 Lean NO XTraps 2358.5.3.4 Particulate Filters 237References . 238Further Reading 245 Chapter 9 Gasoline Volatility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2479.1 Measurement of Gasoline Volatility 2509.1.1 Vapor Pressure . 2509.1.2 R
35、eid Vapor Pressure . 2509.1.3 Dry Vapor Pressure and DVPE 2519.1.4 Distillation by ASTM D86 2529.1.5 Vapor- Liquid Ratio 2549.1.6 Effect of Oxygenated Blending Components 2559.2 Cold Starting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2589.2.1 Di
36、fferent Fuel System Technologies 2589.2.1.1 Carbureted Engines 2599.2.1.2 Port Fuel Injected Engines . 2599.2.1.3 Direct Injection Engines . 2599.2.2 Relevant Specifications 2609.3 Cold Weather Driveability 2609.3.1 Cold Weather Driveability Test Procedures . 2619.3.1.1 U.S. Test Procedures 2619.3.1
37、.2 European Procedures . 2629.3.2 Relevant Fuel Parameters 2639.3.2.1 U.S. Driveability Index 2649.3.2.2 European and Japanese Indices 2649.4 Hot Weather Driveability 2669.4.1 Hot Weather Driveability Testing 2669.4.2 Hot Weather Driveability Problems 2679.4.2.1 Fuel Weathering . 2679.4.2.2 Vapor Lo
38、ck 2679.4.2.3 Carburetor Percolation 2679.4.2.4 Carburetor Foaming 2679.4.3 Hot Weather Fuel Parameter Specification 2689.5 Evaporative Emissions from Vehicles 2709.5.1 Measuring Evaporative Emissions. 2719.5.2 Reducing Evaporative Emissions 271 R-297_book.indb 12 1/21/14 12:55 PMxiii Contents9.6 In
39、fluence of Fuel Volatility on Exhaust Emissions 2739.7 Intake System Icing . 2739.7.1 Throttle Icing in Carbureted and Throttle Body Injected Engines 2739.7.2 Throttle Icing in Multipoint Fuel Injected Engines . 2759.8 Oil Dilution and Combustion Chamber Deposits 2759.9 Fuel Economy and Gasoline Vol
40、atility . 276References . 277Further Reading 285 Chapter 10 Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability, Gum Formation, and Engine Deposits 28710.1 The Influence of Gasoline Composition on Stability 28710.1.1 Measurement of Stability. 288 10.1.1.1 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Induction P
41、eriod Method 288 10.1.1.2 Automated Measurement of Induction Period 289 10.1.1.3 Measurement of Gum Content by Jet Evaporation 289 10.1.1.4 Measurement of Oxidation Stability by Potential Residue Method . 289 10.1.1.5 Measurement of Long- Term Stability . 29010.2 Deposit Formation in Engines Due to
42、Gasoline Oxidation 29010.2.1 Deposit Formation in the Fuel Tank and Fuel Lines 29110.2.2 Deposit Formation in Fuel Injectors and Carburetors. 292 10.2.2.1 Chrysler 2.2 . 295 10.2.2.2 Other Vehicle- Based Injector Deposit Test 295 10.2.2.3 CRC Injector Deposit Bench Test . 29610.2.3 Deposit Formation
43、 in the Inlet Manifold, Ports, and on Valves 296 10.2.3.1 Opel Kadett Test . 298 10.2.3.2 Mercedes- Benz M102E Test 299 10.2.3.3 BMW 318i Test . 300 10.2.3.4 Mercedes- Benz M111 Test . 300 10.2.3.5 Ford 2.3 Test . 302 10.2.3.6 Other Engine Tests . 302 10.2.3.7 Bench Simulator Rigs . 302 10.2.3.8 Val
44、ve Stick Test 30310.2.4 Combustion Chamber Deposits . 304 10.2.4.1 Deposit Formation in Direct Injection Gasoline Engines. 305 10.2.4.2 Combustion Chamber Deposit Interference 307References 307 R-297_book.indb 13 1/21/14 12:55 PMxiv Contents Chapter 11 Gasoline Additives 31711.1 Additives to Improve
45、 Oxidation Stability. 31811.1.1 Antioxidants . 31811.1.2 Metal Deactivators 32011.2 Additives Used in Gasoline Distribution . 32111.2.1 Dyes and Markers. 32111.2.2 Corrosion Inhibitors . 32211.2.3 Biocides . 3221 1.2.4 Anti- Static Additives 32311.2.5 Drag Reducing Agents. 32311.2.6 Demulsifiers and
46、 Dehazers . 32311.3 Additives Used to Protect Engines and Fuel Systems. 32511.3.1 Corrosion Inhibitors . 3251 1.3.2 Anti- icing Additives. 32611.3.3 Deposit Control Additives (DCAs) 326 11.3.3.1 Carburetor Cleanliness Additives 326 11.3.3.2 Port Fuel Injector Anti- Fouling Additives 329 11.3.3.3 Add
47、itives to Control Inlet Manifold, Inlet Valve, and Port Deposits 330 11.3.3.4 Additives for Direct Injection Injector Cleanliness. 331 11.3.3.5 Combustion Chamber Deposit Control 33111.3.4 Factory Fill Additives 33211.4 Additives That Influence Combustion . 33211.4.1 Antiknock Additives 3321 1.4.2 A
48、nti- ORI Additives . 3321 1.4.3 Anti- Pr e- Ignition and Anti- Misfir e Additives . 3331 1.4.4 Spark- Aider Additives. 33411.4.5 Additives for Improving Fuel Distribution between Cylinders 3341 1.4.6 Anti- V alve- Seat Recession Additives. 33511.5 Additives That Improve Lubricant Performance. 33511.
49、5.1 Upper Cylinder Lubricants . 3361 1.5.2 Anti- W ear Additives 33611.5.3 Friction Modifiers . 3371 1.5.4 Anti- Sludge Additives . 3371 1.6 Multi- Functional Additive Packages . 338References 339 Chapter 12 Other Gasoline Specification and Non- Specifica tion Pr operties .349 12.1 Density 349 12.2 Heat of Combustion . 350 R-297_book.indb 14 1/21/14 12:55 PMxv Contents 12.3 Composition . 35212.3.1 Hydrocarbon Composition . 35212.3.2 Elemental Composition 353 12.3.2.1 Lead 353 12.3.2.2 Manganese 354 12.3.2.3 Phosphorus . 354 12.3.2.4 Sulfur. 35412.3.3 Oxygenates 35612.3.4 Water
