1、ENGINEERED TRIBOLOGICAL COMPOSITES The Art of Friction Material Development Roy L. Cox tfmiEiriterfiatibnai“: i Engineered Tribological Composites R-401 Book.indb 1 10/31/11 3:06 PMOther SAE books of interest: Brake Design and Safety, 3rd Ed. By Rudolf Limpert (Product Code: R-398) Brake Technology
2、Handbook By Karlheinz Bill and Bert J. Breuer (Product Code: R-375) Dictionary of Materials and Testing, 2nd Ed. By Joan Tomsic (Product Code: R-257) For more information or to order a book, contact SAE International at 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, USA; phone 877-606-7323 (U.S.
3、 and Canada only) or 724-776-4970 (outside U.S. and Canada); fax 724-776-0790; email CustomerServicesae.org; website http:/books.sae.org. R-401 Book.indb 2 10/31/11 3:06 PMEngineered Tribological Composites: The Art of Friction Material Development By Roy L. Cox Warrendale, Pennsylvania, USA R-401 B
4、ook.indb 3 10/31/11 3:06 PM Copyright 2012 SAE International. eISBN: 978-0-7680-7381-2400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA E-mail: CustomerServicesae.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Copyright 2012 SAE International. All righ
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6、-0001 USA; email: copyrightsae. org; phone: 724-772-4028; fax: 724-772-9765. ISBN 978-0-7680-3485-1 SAE Order Number R-401 DOI 10.4271/R-401 Information contained in this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its auth
7、ors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither SAE International nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its
8、 authors are supplying information, but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. To purchase bulk quantities, please contact: SAE Customer Service E-mail: CustomerServicesae
9、.org Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA) Fax: 724-776-0790 Visit the SAE International Bookstore at http:/books.sae.org Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cox, Roy L.Engineered tribological composites : the art of friction material development.p. cm.
10、ISBN 978-0-7680-3485-11. Composite materials. 2. Friction materials. 3. Automobiles-Materials. I. Society of Automotive Engineers. II. Title. TA418.9.C6C696 2011620.118-dc23 2011035718 R-401 Book.indb 4 10/31/11 3:06 PMDedication This book is dedicated to Marie, for teaching me to dream the impossib
11、le; to Deena, for the greatest gift a man could have; and to Greyson and Mattie, who teach me the truest meaning of love. R-401 Book.indb 5 10/31/11 3:06 PMR-401 Book.indb 6 10/31/11 3:06 PMvii vii Table of Contents Preface xiii Acknowledgements . xv Introduction 1 1. Engineered Tribological Composi
12、tes 5 1.1 Functional Definition .6 1.2 Herbert Frood and Ferodo.7 1.3 Modern Engineered Tribological Composites 11 1.4 Tribology 12 2. Friction: One Aspect of Tribology 17 2.1 A Brief History of Friction .19 2.2 A Teacup and Modern Tribology 22 2.3 The Adhesion Model of Friction .23 2.4 The Abrasive
13、 Model of Friction 24 3. Sliding Wear . 33 3.1 Abrasive Wear .36 3.2 Adhesive Wear 41 3.3 Chemical Wear 45 3.4 Delamination Wear .47 3.5 Third Body Layers 49 4. Tribological Systems 61 4.1 The Snubbing Chain .62 4.2 The Transition to Internal Expanding Brakes .68 4.3 The Disc Brake .75 4.4 The Multi
14、-Disc System .78 R-401 Book.indb 7 10/31/11 3:06 PMviii ix Contents 5. Friction Material Manufacturing Methods . 85 5.1 Woven Materials 86 5.2 Sheeter Materials 91 5.3 Rolled Materials 92 5.4 Extruded Linings 95 5.5 Paper Materials .96 5.6 Molded Materials 100 5.7 Sintered Metallic Materials 104 5.8
15、 Carbon-Carbon Friction Materials .106 5.9 Ceramic Friction Materials 107 6. Types of Friction Materials . 113 6.1 The Complexity of Classification . 114 6.2 Asbestos-Based Friction Materials . 116 6.3 Semi-Metallic Materials . 117 6.4 Low Metallic Friction Materials 120 6.5 Non-Asbestos Organic (NA
16、O) Materials 123 6.6 Non-Asbestos Non-Metallic (NANM) Materials .126 6.7 Ceramic Materials .128 6.8 Carbon-Carbon Materials 130 6.9 Sintered Metallic Materials 131 6.10 Paper-Based Materials .133 6.11 Woven Materials .135 7. The Five Elements of a Friction Material . 143 7.1 The Binder 145 7.2 Fiber
17、s 147 7.3 Abrasives149 7.4 Lubricants 152 7.5 Fillers .156 8. Early Organic Binder Systems . 163 8.1 Asphalt and Bitumen .165 8.2 Drying Oils 169 8.3 Rubber-Based Binders 174 8.4 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) 177 R-401 Book.indb 8 10/31/11 3:06 PMviii ix 5. Friction Material Manufacturing Methods .
18、 85 5.1 Woven Materials 86 5.2 Sheeter Materials 91 5.3 Rolled Materials 92 5.4 Extruded Linings 95 5.5 Paper Materials .96 5.6 Molded Materials 100 5.7 Sintered Metallic Materials 104 5.8 Carbon-Carbon Friction Materials .106 5.9 Ceramic Friction Materials 107 6. Types of Friction Materials . 113 6
19、.1 The Complexity of Classification . 114 6.2 Asbestos-Based Friction Materials . 116 6.3 Semi-Metallic Materials . 117 6.4 Low Metallic Friction Materials 120 6.5 Non-Asbestos Organic (NAO) Materials 123 6.6 Non-Asbestos Non-Metallic (NANM) Materials .126 6.7 Ceramic Materials .128 6.8 Carbon-Carbo
20、n Materials 130 6.9 Sintered Metallic Materials 131 6.10 Paper-Based Materials .133 6.11 Woven Materials .135 7. The Five Elements of a Friction Material . 143 7.1 The Binder 145 7.2 Fibers 147 7.3 Abrasives149 7.4 Lubricants 152 7.5 Fillers .156 8. Early Organic Binder Systems . 163 8.1 Asphalt and
21、 Bitumen .165 8.2 Drying Oils 169 8.3 Rubber-Based Binders 174 8.4 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) 177 9. Phenolic Resins . 183 9.1 Elementary Phenolic Resin Chemistry 186 9.2 Resole Resins .188 9.3 Novolak Resins .192 9.4 Thermo-Oxidative Degradation of Phenolic Resins 195 10. Modified Phenolic Resi
22、ns 201 10.1 Oil Modified Phenolic Resins 202 10.2 Cashew Nut Shell Liquid (CNSL) Modified Phenolic Resins 204 10.3 Rubber Modified Phenolic Resins 206 10.4 Thermally Enhanced Phenolic Resins .212 11. Advanced Organic Binder Systems . 221 11.1 Polyimides .222 11.2 Condensed Polynuclear Aromatic (COPN
23、A) Resins 227 11.3 Bismaleimide-Triazine (BT) Resins 228 12. Inorganic Binder Systems . 233 12.1 Hydraulic Cement 234 12.2 Waterglass 237 12.3 Ceramic Polymer Binder Systems 238 12.4 Metallic Binder Systems.240 13. Organic Fiber . 247 13.1 Cellulose Fiber .249 13.2 Polyethylene .252 13.3 Polyacrylon
24、itrile (PAN) .252 13.4 Aramid Fiber .255 13.5 Phenolic Fiber 260 13.6 Polybenzimidazole Fiber (PBI) 261 13.7 Polyoxazole Fiber .261 13.8 Polypyridobisimidazole Fiber 262 R-401 Book.indb 9 10/31/11 3:06 PMx xi Contents 14. Carbon Fiber 267 14.1 A Short History of Carbon Fiber.268 14.2 Rayon-Based Car
25、bon Fiber 270 14.3 Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber 270 14.4 Polyacrylonitrile-Based (PAN-Based) Fiber 272 14.5 Phenolic-Based Carbon Fiber 273 14.6 Carbon Fiber Use in Friction Materials .273 15. Inorganic Fiber 279 15.1 Asbestos .280 15.2 Wollastonite .287 15.3 Glass Fiber .289 15.4 Basalt Fiber 292 15.5
26、Synthetic Vitreous Fiber (Spun Fiber) 294 16. Metallic Fiber 305 16.1 Metal Fiber in Friction Materials 307 16.2 Steel Fiber .308 16.3 Lead Fiber 310 16.4 Aluminum Fiber 312 16.5 Copper Fiber 312 16.6 Brass Fiber 315 16.7 Zinc Fiber .316 16.8 Other Alloys 317 17. Abrasives 321 17.1 Historical Use of
27、 Abrasive Additives 322 17.2 Sand (Silicon DioxideQuartz) .325 17.3 Aluminum Oxide 330 17.4 Aluminum Silicates 332 17.5 Silicon Carbide 334 17.6 Zirconium Silicate .335 17.7 Metal Oxides .336 R-401 Book.indb 10 10/31/11 3:06 PMx xi 14. Carbon Fiber 267 14.1 A Short History of Carbon Fiber.268 14.2 R
28、ayon-Based Carbon Fiber 270 14.3 Pitch-Based Carbon Fiber 270 14.4 Polyacrylonitrile-Based (PAN-Based) Fiber 272 14.5 Phenolic-Based Carbon Fiber 273 14.6 Carbon Fiber Use in Friction Materials .273 15. Inorganic Fiber 279 15.1 Asbestos .280 15.2 Wollastonite .287 15.3 Glass Fiber .289 15.4 Basalt F
29、iber 292 15.5 Synthetic Vitreous Fiber (Spun Fiber) 294 16. Metallic Fiber 305 16.1 Metal Fiber in Friction Materials 307 16.2 Steel Fiber .308 16.3 Lead Fiber 310 16.4 Aluminum Fiber 312 16.5 Copper Fiber 312 16.6 Brass Fiber 315 16.7 Zinc Fiber .316 16.8 Other Alloys 317 17. Abrasives 321 17.1 His
30、torical Use of Abrasive Additives 322 17.2 Sand (Silicon DioxideQuartz) .325 17.3 Aluminum Oxide 330 17.4 Aluminum Silicates 332 17.5 Silicon Carbide 334 17.6 Zirconium Silicate .335 17.7 Metal Oxides .336 18. Solid Lubricants . 351 18.1 Graphite .353 18.2 Metal Sulfides 361 18.3 Hexagonal Boron Nit
31、ride 373 18.4 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) .373 19. Organic Filler Materials 381 19.1 Naturally Occurring Organic Filler Materials 383 19.2 Synthetic Organic Filler Materials .386 20. Inorganic Filler Materials . 399 20.1 The Role of a Filler in Friction Materials .400 20.2 Carbonaceous Filler Mat
32、erials 401 20.3 Barytes 407 20.4 Calcium Carbonate .408 20.5 Calcium Hydroxide and Calcium Oxide .409 20.6 Mica 412 20.7 Calcium Fluoride 414 20.8 Cryolite .415 20.9 Kaolin .416 20.10 Feldspar 416 21. Metallic Filler Materials 423 21.1 Cast Iron Grit .424 21.2 Sponge Iron 425 21.3 Carbonyl Iron 427
33、21.4 Aluminum Powder .427 21.5 Copper Powder .429 21.6 Zinc Powder 430 21.7 Lead Powder .431 21.8 Brass Chips 431 21.9 Bronze Powder 433 R-401 Book.indb 11 10/31/11 3:06 PMxii 22. Testing and Evaluation of Friction Materials 439 22.1 Physical Test Methods 440 22.2 Chemical Test Methods 445 22.3 Trib
34、ological Test Methods 448 22.4 Wet Friction Material Testing .453 22.5 Final Words on Testing .454 23. Future Directions . 461 Index 465 Contents R-401 Book.indb 12 10/31/11 3:06 PMxiii Preface Nature speedily extinguishes every motion upon earth, and seems to diffuse a principle of silence and repo
35、se John Leslie AS JOhN LESLIE hAS ELOquENTL y STATED, friction is an omnipresent force that works to slow every motion on earth. In addition, it seems that friction suffers from a dissociative identity disordercommonly being viewed as the nemesis of all moving components in modern equipment and yet
36、also seen as a critical safety component in todays transportation industry. Without friction, tires would not grip roads, clutches and synchronizer rings would not transmit torque, and brake linings could not stop a vehicle. Therefore, for our purposes, friction is a necessary force that must be pre
37、dictable and fully controllable during use to provide the necessary functionality required by these special areas of automotive system design. Why a Book on Friction Materials? Despite more than one hundred years of progress in virtually all aspects of the transportation industry, the world of frict
38、ion material development remains a dark, obscure world often regarded as a field of study akin to alchemy, witchcraft, or other suitably arcane black art. This perception is based on the lack of knowledge available to the general public, which is for the most part due to deliberately imposed secrecy
39、 necessary to protect commercial interests. Although this level of secrecy has been effective at protecting commercial interests, it has also been insulating and has led to the inevitable consequence of reinvention, which leads to limited growth and increased cost. It must be noted that the primary
40、desire of this work is not profound, nor is it deeply philosophical. The purpose of this text is to prevent reinvention by providing a single reference containing commonly recorded findings from various sources of previous research efforts and associated art. It is an attempt to review and gather mo
41、re than one hundred years of public domain information, including published friction material compositions, manufacturing techniques, and a collection of esoteric oddities, with the purpose of directing researchers toward more fruitful areas of research. It is hoped that readers will arm themselves
42、with this information and thus avoid some of the pitfalls experienced by our predecessors. R-401 Book.indb 13 10/31/11 3:06 PMR-401 Book.indb 14 10/31/11 3:06 PMxv Acknowledgments To write a book that condenses a century of information into a readable form is a task that cannot be achieved by a sing
43、le individual. I am indebted to the entire editorial staff of SAE International, especially Martha Swiss for her kind attention and seemingly endless patience regarding my numerous questions about the most mundane topics. It is the experience and knowledge of the editorial staff that enabled me to i
44、mprove this text in many ways. I remain convinced that without them, this little book would have become hardly more than an effective sleep aid. There were many reviewers whose comments enabled me to significantly improve several areas of the book. Their assistance allowed me to stretch beyond the b
45、oundaries of my personal knowledge and grow to new levels. I am very thankful for their help. I would specifically like to thank Dr. Alan Hase for his constructive comments that have given me insight into recent studies of abrasion and underlying wear mechanisms. His work provides a foundation that
46、will undoubtedly lead to further advances in the understanding of third body layer formation and will remain an area of increased interest in the years to come. Likewise, reviewers within our industry provided a perspective that encouraged me to see the richness of our industrys history from a globa
47、l perspective. This direction enabled me to expand greatly on specific sections pertaining to the earliest days of friction material development and the advent of the motorcar. In addition, I am indebted to the kind instruction given by Dr. Peter J. Blau and Dr. Jayashree Bijwe. These men accepted t
48、he challenge of reviewing specific sections of the text that were unquestionably laborious to read. It is their many comments and corrections on specific aspects of tribology that have helped me to improve these sections greatly. For this I am eternally grateful. And at the risk of leaving someone o
49、ut, I would also like to acknowledge a circle of friends who share a similar passion, albeit one that few “normal people” would understand. For countless reasons, these few were at times my mentors, guides and occasionally, my analysts! Ken W., “Kazu,” Ron, Steve, Greg, Rob, “Mo,” Chris, Mark, and Raleigh Thank you all very much R-401 Book.indb 15 10/31/11 3:06 PMR-401 Book.indb 16 10/31/11 3:06 PM1 Introduction Iteration, like friction, is likely to generate heat instead of progress. George Elliot ThE hISTOR y Of mANkINDS ATTEmPTS TO harness the beneficial attributes o
