1、Roger F. WellsRoger F. WellsOccupant Protection and Automobile Safety in the U.S. since 1900The quest for innovation and speed in the first 60 years of the automobiles development overshadowed efforts made to protect drivers and passengers. However, safety became a more important facet of motorized
2、travel as more drivers took to the roads and serious injuries and deaths attributed to automobiles began to increase rapidly.Automobile fatalities seemed an inevitable consequence of progress, and it was not until the mid-1920s that the U.S. government tried to understand and stem the increasing num
3、ber of road accidents and deaths. All involved parties were to some extent responsible for not improving the situation up to that point: drivers for their lack of concern about safety, politicians for failing to mandate adequate safety rules, and the automobile industry for not implementing availabl
4、e technologies to save lives. This book is an exploration of ingenuity, entrepreneurship, and technical skill that have resulted in todays advanced and safe automobiles. It provides a historical review of safety features appearing on passenger cars that have been produced for sale in the U.S. from 1
5、900 to the present. A main theme throughout is the impact the automobile has made on society, with particular emphasis on accidents and loss of life. Another theme involves the technological advances that have contributed to safer driving. About the AuthorBorn in England, Roger Wells served as an en
6、gineer apprentice with Hawker Siddely Aviation and completed his undergraduate education in mechanical engineering. Early in his career he was an engineer for the United Kingdom Ministries of Technology and Defence where he managed testing facilities for development of military fighting vehicles and
7、 aircraft fuel systems. Later, Wells worked on microprocessor-controlled engine diagnostic systems, airbag crash protection systems, and development of sensors for passenger vehicle stability control. He has served in various engineering and executive management roles with United Technologies, TRW A
8、utomotive, and BEI Technologies. Dr. Wells holds MBA and PhD degrees in business management.R-404Occupant Protection and Automobile Safetyin the U.S. since 1900WellsOccupant Protection and Automobile Safety in the U.S. since 1900Occupant Protection and Automobile Safety in the U.S. since 1900r-404 b
9、ook.indb 1 2/9/12 8:45 AMOther SAE titles of interest:Pioneers, Engineers, and Scoundrels: The Dawn of the Automobile in AmericaBy Beverly Rae Kimes(Product Code: R-358)Head Injury BiomechanicsBy Jeffrey A. Pike(Product Code: PT-152.SET)Pregnant Occupant BiomechanicsBy Stefan Duma(Product Code: PT-1
10、50)For more information or to order a book, contact: SAE International400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USAPhone: 877-606-7323 (U.S. and Canada only) or 724-776-4970 (outside U.S. and Canada)Fax: 724-776-0790;Email: CustomerServicesae.org;Website: http:/books.sae.orgr-404 book.indb 2
11、2/9/12 8:45 AMOccupant Protection and Automobile Safety in the U.S. since 1900By Roger F. WellsWarrendale, PennsylvaniaUSAr-404 book.indb 3 2/9/12 8:45 AMCopyright 2012 SAE International. eISBN: 978-0-7680-7618-9400 Commonwealth DriveWarrendale, PA 15096-0001 USAE-mail: CustomerServicesae.orgPhone:
12、877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA)Fax: 724-776-0790Copyright 2012 SAE International. All rights reserved.No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, distributed, or transmitted, in any form or by any means without the prior written permiss
13、ion of SAE. For permission and licensing requests, contact SAE Permissions, 400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA; e-mail: copyrightsae.org; phone: 724-772-4028; fax: 724-772-9765.ISBN 978-0-7680-3529-2SAE Order No. R-404DOI 10.4271/R-404Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication
14、DataWells, Roger F. Occupant protection and automobile safety in the U.S. since 1900 / by Roger F. Wells.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 978-0-7680-3529-21. Motor vehicles-Safety appliances-United States-History. I. Title. TL159.5.W45 2012629.231-dc23 2011050709Information contained i
15、n this work has been obtained by SAE International from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither SAE International nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither SAE International nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, om
16、issions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that SAE International and its authors are supplying information, but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an
17、 appropriate professional should be sought.To purchase bulk quantities, please contact:SAE Customer ServiceE-mail: CustomerServicesae.orgPhone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)724-776-4970 (outside USA)Fax: 724-776-0790Visit the SAE Bookstore atbooks.sae.orgr-404 book.indb 4 2/9/12 8:45 AMDedica
18、tionTo Carol, my wife and best friend, who has provided limitless encouragement and support, without which this book would never have been started or finished.Visit the SAE Bookstore atbooks.sae.orgr-404 book.indb 5 2/9/12 8:45 AMr-404 book.indb 6 2/9/12 8:45 AMvii Table of ContentsIntroduction 1Cha
19、pter 1 Pre-1900 Automobiles 11Introduction .12First Fatalities Related to Automobiles 15Government Actions .17Safety-related Components and Systems 18Chapter 2 1900 to 1924: Early Regulations and Safety Systems 27Introduction .28Annual Fatalities in the United States 31Government Actions .32Safety-r
20、elated Components and Systems 33Chapter 3 1924 to 1934: Early Governmental Concern .57Introduction .58Annual Fatalities .59Government Actions .59Safety-related Components and Systems 93Conclusions 100Chapter 4 1934 to 1955: The Laissez-Faire Years 103Introduction .104Annual Fatalities .108Safety-rel
21、ated Components and Systems 110 Conclusions 126r-404 book.indb 7 2/9/12 8:45 AMviii Chapter 5 1955 to Present: Science, Technology, and Safety . 129Introduction .130Introduction of Advanced Electronics 132Growing Awareness of Passenger Safety Concerns .133Government Actions .137Occupant Restraint an
22、d Protection .149Safety-related Components and Systems 176Conclusions 198Afterword . 199References 211Index 223About the Author . 247r-404 book.indb 8 2/9/12 8:45 AM1 Introduction In my career, I have spent many years closely associated with the automotive industry and managed engineering programs d
23、uring the early days when airbags were first used. The idea for this book was conceived during the writing of my PhD dissertation entitled, “A Historical Study of the Evolution and Effects of Federal Automotive Safety Legislation in the United States from 1900 to 2005.” It was a study that examined
24、to what extent, if any, federally mandated safety rules and design-mandates reduced the annual numbers of passenger deaths on the U.S. highways, and it covered the period from the time that the first automobiles were regularly used on U.S. roads and highways to 2005. The study was inspired by the ap
25、parent lack of concern exhibited by automotive manufacturers, politicians, and the general motoring population with regard to the actual numbers of car drivers and passengers who were killed in the United States on a daily basis. Reported statistics invariably concentrated on ratiometric numbers suc
26、h as deaths-per-driven-mile-per-year or deaths-per-registered-motor-vehicle-per-year, and published charts and graphs using these data showed very impressive annual improvements. Figure I.1 is a graph showing the trend line of annual passenger car deaths in the United States per million driven miles
27、 per year. As can be clearly seen, the trend between the years 1920 and 2005 very closely approximates an exponentially declining curve line. This declining curve is a remarkably impressive achievement that has been accomplished and aided by continuous improvements to vehicle design, implementation
28、of new advanced technologies, driver and passenger acceptance, and use of safety restraint systems plus great improvements in highway designs, construction techniques, and maintenance. In contrast, however, Fig. I.2 illustrates the dramatically increasing numbers of U.S. passenger-car drivers Introd
29、uctionr-404 book.indb 1 2/9/12 8:45 AM2 Introduction Fig. I.1 Exponential decline curve showing fatalities in the U.S. per million driven miles.Fatalities/million Miles 1900 to 2005y = 2E+213x-65.1560.00000.05000.10000.15000.20000.25000.30000.35000.40000.45000.50001900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000YearsF
30、atalitiesper Million MilesExponential Best Fit LineTraffic Fatalities 1900 to 2005010,00020,00030,00040,00050,00060,0001900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000DateFatalitiesFig. I.2 Chart of automobile-related deaths per year in the U.S. for the period 1900 to 2005.Fatalities/million Miles 1900 to 2005Traffic
31、Fatalities 1900 to 2005r-404 book.indb 2 2/9/12 8:45 AM3 Introduction and occupants who died over the same time period, while Fig. I.3 clearly shows that the very rapid rise in annual deaths was in strong contrast to the much slower increase in total miles driven each year. Consider actual numbers:
32、for the United States in 1910 there were 1599 automobile related deaths; 12,155 in 1920; and more than 31,000 in 1930, with the rates continuing to rise each year.While the statistic, deaths-per-mile-driven, shows great success in reducing the likelihood of people dying in motor vehicle accidents, i
33、t completely masks the number of individual personal tragedies that have devastated American families on a daily basis since the beginning of the 20th Century. Not until 1924 was this terrible and continuing accidental loss of life taken seriously by the Federal Government. It was President Coolidge
34、, in the 1920s, who first took action to promote the understanding of safety and causes of automotive-related deaths. Comparison of Deaths with Driven Miles 1900 to 2005010,00020,00030,00040,00050,00060,0001900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000DatesFatalities0500,0001,000,0001,500,0002,000,0002,500,0003,000,
35、0003,500,000Miles(Millions)Deaths Miles DrivenFig. I.3 Annual numbers of automobile-related deaths compared with miles driven per year in the U.S. for the period 1900 to 2005.Comparison of Deaths with Driven Miles 1900 to 2005r-404 book.indb 3 2/9/12 8:45 AM4 Introduction He appointed Secretary of C
36、ommerce, Herbert Hoover, to be the chairman of a National Conference on Street and Highway Safety and personally acknowledged the existence of a void in the fundamental understanding of causes of death and serious injury in automobile accidents. At the First National Conference on Street and Highway
37、 Safety in Washington, D.C. on Dec. 5-16, 1924, Hoover gave the opening address, in which he stated: “I have called this National Conference on Street and Highway Safety at the urgent request of a large number of interested groups from all parts of the country. This meeting has been denominated in s
38、ome of the press as a life and death conference. It does aim at further means to save lives. For instance, few of our states impose rigorous determination of competence before licensing drivers. I have, within a few months, had a friend run down on the sidewalk by a wooden-legged driver who never dr
39、ove before and who mistook the accelerator for the brake. There is no uniformity in traffic regulations. I could be arrested and convicted on a dozen counts between Washington and New York if I carefully followed either the Washington or New York traffic regulations.”Recommendations and observations
40、 arising from this conference are discussed in detail in Chapter 3. The National Conference delegates made great improvements in mandating how motor vehicles were to be manufactured with respect to safety concerns and consistency of driver-operated controls and mechanisms. These mandates were of sig
41、nificant benefit to individual drivers who now had similar controls and layouts no matter which make of vehicle was being driven. Figure I.2, however, shows that the annual death rate still continued to rise for many years after the last National Conference was held in 1934, to a peak of more than 5
42、4,000 deaths in 1972. To put these numbers into perspective, Fig. I.4 shows the battlefield deaths of U.S. soldiers in major wars fought since the Revolutionary War. The total of all battlefield deaths from 1775 to 1991 was 651,008; the total of highway fatalities over the same 104 year period was 3
43、,283,009. During the Vietnam War, 47,410 American soldiers died: Each year between 1966 and 1995 more than 40,000 people died on the U.S. highways (with a minor deviation in 1992 when there were only 39,320 recorded fatalities). r-404 book.indb 4 2/9/12 8:45 AM5 Introduction American Revolution (177
44、5-1783) Total 0 service members 217,00Battle deaths 4,435 War of 1812 (1812-1815) Total service members 286,730 Battle deat 2,260 hs Ind ox. 1817-189ian Wars (appr 8) Total service members 106,000 Battle dea 00 ths 1,0Mexican War (1846-1898) To 78tal service members ,718 Battle deaths 1,733 Civil Wa
45、r (1861-1865) Total service members (Union) 2,213,363 Battle deaths (Union) 140,414 Total 00 service members (Conf.) 1,050,0Battle deaths (Conf.) 74,524 Spanish-American War (1898-1902) Total service members 306,760 Battle d 385eaths World War I (1917-1918) Total service members 91 4,734,9Battle de
46、402 aths 53,World War II (1940-1945) To 16tal service members ,112,566Battle deaths 291,557 Korean War (1950-1953) Total service members 5,720,000 Battle deat 3,741 hs 3Vietnam War (1964-1975) Total service members 8,744,000 Battle deaths 47,410 Gulf War (1990-1991) Tot 2,al service members 225,000
47、Battle deaths 147 Americas Wars total Military service during war 42,348,460Batt 65le deaths 1,008 Fig. I.4 Battle-related deaths of U.S. military personnel from 1775 to 1991.Since 2005, these numbers have started to decline, but today, in the United States, they are still in the region of 30,000 de
48、aths per year. Importantly, in many cases, the technologies and means for reducing fatal crashes were available long before they were ever used or r-404 book.indb 5 2/9/12 8:45 AM6 Introduction mandated. Of particular note is the invention of the seatbelt, a safety device that long predates the firs
49、t appearance of automobiles in the 19thCentury. Study after study has shown that seatbelts are probably the most effective tool in preventing death or serious injury to car occupants, but in the United States their installation in passenger cars was not required until 1968, and their usage is still less than 100%. Donna Glassbrenner, in a study written for the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA) I-1, estimates that during the period 1991-2001, approximately 109,000 lives were saved by seatbelts in the United States.The fatality
