1、API PUBL*1628A 9b = 0732290 0559306 bA9 = Natural Attenuation Processes API PUBLICATION 1628A FIRST EDITION, JULY 1996 Strategies for To, - day4 Environmental Partnership American Petroleum Institute API PUBL*1628A 96 W 0732290 0559107 515 Environmental Partnerrhip One of the most significant long-t
2、erm trends affecting the future vitality of the petro- leum industry is the publics concerns about the environment. Recognizing this trend, API member companies have developed a positive, forward looking strategy called STEP: Strategies for Todays Environmental Partnership. This program aims to addr
3、ess public concerns by improving industrys environmental, health and safety performance; docu- menting performance improvements; and communicating them to the public. The founda- tion of STEP is the API Environmental Mission and Guiding Environmental Principles. APT standards, by promoting the use o
4、f sound engineering and operational practices, are an important means of implementing APIs STEP program. API ENVIRONMENTAL MISSION AND GUIDING ENVIRONMENTAL PRINCIPLES The members of the American Petroleum Institute are dedicated to continuous efforts to improve the compatibility of our operations w
5、ith the environment while economically developing energy resources and supplying high quality products and services to consum- ers. The members recognize the importance of efficiently meeting societys needs and our responsibility to work with the public, the government, and others to develop and to
6、use natural resources in an environmentally sound manner while protecting the health and safety of our employees and the public. To meet these responsibilities, API members pledge to manage our businesses according to these principles: To recognize and to respond to community concerns about our raw
7、materials, prod- ucts and operations. To operate our plants and facilities, and to handle our raw materials and products in a manner that protects the environment, and the safety and health of our employees and the public. To make safety, health and environmental considerations a priority in our pla
8、nning, and our development of new products and processes. To advise promptly appropriate officials, employees, customers and the public of information on significant industry-related safety, health and environmental hazards, and to recommend protective measures. To counsel customers, transporters an
9、d others in the safe use, transportation and dis- posal of our raw materials, products and waste materiais. To economically develop and produce natural resources and to conserve those resources by using energy efficiently. To extend knowledge by conducting or supporting research on the safety, healt
10、h and environmental effects of our raw materials, products, processes and waste materials. To commit to reduce overall emissions and waste generation. To work with others to resolve problems created by handling and disposal of hazard- ous substances from our operations. To participate with governmen
11、t and others in creating responsible laws, regulations and standards to safeguard the community, workplace and environment. To promote these principles and practices by sharing experiences and offering assis- tance to others who produce, handle, use, transport or dispose of similar raw materi- als,
12、petroleum products and wastes. API PUBL*Lb28A 96 0732290 0559308 451 Natural Attenuation Processes Manufacturing, Distribution and Marketing Department API PUBLICATION 1628A FIRST EDITION, JULY 1996 American Petroleum Institute - API PUBL*1628A 96 0732290 0559109 398 W SPECIAL NOTES API publications
13、 necessarily address problems of a general nature. With respect to par- ticular circumstances, local, state, and federal laws and regulations should be reviewed. API is not undertaking to meet the duties of employers, manufacturers, or suppliers to warn and properly train and equip their employees,
14、and others exposed, concerning health and safety risks and precautions, nor undertaking their obligations under local, state, or federal laws. Information concerning safety and health risks and proper precautions with respect to particular materials and conditions should be obtained from the employe
15、r, the manufac- turer or supplier of that material, or the material safety data sheet. Nothing contained in any API publication is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, for the manufacture, sale, or use of any method, apparatus, or product covered by letters patent. Nei
16、ther should anything contained in the publication be construed as insuring anyone against liability for infringement of letters patent. Generally, API standards are reviewed and revised, reaffirmed, or withdrawn at least every five years. Sometimes a one-time extension of up to two years will be add
17、ed to this review cycle. This publication will no longer be in effect five years after its publication date as an operativeAP1 standard or, where an extension has been granted, upon republica- tion. Status of the publication can be ascertained from the API Authoring Department telephone (202) 682-80
18、00. A catalog of API publications and materials is published annually and updated quarterly by API, 1220 L Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. This document was produced under API standardization procedures that ensure appro- priate notification and participation in the developmental process and i
19、s designated as an API standard. Questions Concerning the interpretation of the content of this standard or comments and questions concerning the procedures under which this standard was devel- oped should be directed in writing to the director of the Authoring Department (shown on the title page of
20、 this document), American Petroleum Institute, 1220 L Street, N.W., Wash- ington, D.C. 20005. Requests for permission to reproduce or translate all or any part of the material published herein should also be addressed to the director. NI publications may be used by anyone desiring to do so. Every ef
21、fort has been made by the Institute to assure the accuracy and reliability of the data contained in them; how- ever, the Institute makes no representation, warranty, or guarantee in connection with this publication and hereby expressly disclaims any liability or responsibility for loss or dam- age r
22、esulting from its use or for the violation of any federal, state, or municipal regulation with which this publication may conflict. API standards are published to facilitate the broad availability of proven, sound engi- neering and operating practices. These standards are not intended to obviate the
23、 need for applying sound engineering judgment regarding when and where these standards should be utilized. The formulation and publication of MI standards is not intended in any way to inhibit anyone from using any other practices. Any manufacturer marking equipment or materials in conformance with
24、the marking requirements of an API standard is solely responsible for complying with all the applica- ble requirements of that standard. API does not represent, warrant, or guarantee that such products do in fact conform to the applicable API standard. All rights reserved. No part of this work may b
25、e reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or other- wise, without prior written permission from the publishex Contact the Publishel; API Publishing Services, 1220 L Street, N. W, Washington, D.C. 20005. Copyright O 1996
26、American Petroleum Institute API PUBLxLb28A 96 0732290 0559LLO DOT FOREWORD API publications may be used by anyone desiring to do so. Every effort has been made by the Institute to assure the accuracy and reliability of the data contained in them; how- ever, the Institute makes no representation, wa
27、rranty, or guarantee in connection with this publication and hereby expressly disclaims any liability or responsibility for loss or dam- age resulting from its use or for the violation of any federal, state, or municipal regulation with which this publication may conflict. Suggested revisions are in
28、vited and should be submitted to the director of the Manufac- turing, Distribution and Marketing Department. American Petroleum Institute, 1220 L Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005. API PUBL*Lb2A 96 = 0732290 0559111 Tqb CONTENTS SECTION 1-INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1 Purpose and Scope . 1 1.2 LNAPL Migra
29、tion 1 1.3 Vapor and Dissolved Phase Migration . 1 SECTION 2-PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROCESS 1 2.1 General . 1 2.2 Adsorption and Retardation . 1 2.3 Dispersion . 2 2.4 Diffusion . 2 SECTION 3-BIOLOGICAL PROCESS . 5 3.1 General . 5 3.2 Aerobic Biodegradation . 6 3.3 Anaerobic Biodegradation 6 SECTION the re
30、duced manganese, however, would not be affected by sulfide buildup 19. Because they can be involved with sulfate reduction, it has been difficult to dif- ferentiate direct biodegradation via metals reduction from indirect reduction because of direct microbial reduction of sulfate. More information o
31、n hydrocarbon biodegradation by iron and manganese reduction will undoubtedly be forth- coming in the near future. Sulfate reduction (converting sulfate to sulfide) and meth- anogenesis (methane production) can be important for bio- degradation under strongly reducing conditions. This is especially
32、significant where sulfate is a significant constitu- ent in the ambient ground water chemistry or in the subsur- face mineralogy. The mechanisms for these processes are also poorly understood, but there is empirical evidence accumulating that these processes do contribute to the bio- degradation of
33、petroleum hydrocarbon compounds. For example, Beller et al. 20 and Acton and Barker 21 monitored the attenuation of monoaromatic hydrocarbons by sulfate reduction, and Grbi-Cali and Vogel 22 docu- mented biodegradation of aromatic hydrocarbons by meth- anogenesis. Taken together, the anaerobic biode
34、gradation processes can be important in the attenuation of a hydrocarbon plume. Cozzarelli et al. 25 investigated the anaerobic biodegrada- tion occumng within the dissolved plume migrating from a crude oil spill in northern Minnesota. They found reducing, methanogenic conditions prevailing up to 80
35、 meters down- gradient of the source area; within ten meters of the source, most of the alkylbenzenes had been degraded to very low concentrations with an accompanying buildup of organic acids. Further downgradient these organic acids were also being degraded. Benzene and ethylbenzene were the most
36、persistent monoaromatics in the anaerobic zone, with their concentrations attenuated within a short distance of encoun- tering trace concentrations of dissolved oxygen. A number of anaerobic metabolic intermediates of various alkylben- zenes were identified. These findings are summarized in Figure 4
37、. API PUBL*Zb28A 9b = 0732290 0559320 T59 8 API PUBLICAION 1628A Parent Oxidized intermediates benzene UCH3 -b toluene aCH3 + qCH3 - CH3 BCH3 -+ a- CH3 Stoneham, MA, 1983,. 161. 5. W. A. Tucker, and L. H. Nelken, “Diffusion Coefficients in Air and Water” in W. J. Lyman, W. F. Reehl, and D. H. Rosenb
38、latt, eds., Handbook of Chemical Property Estima- tion Methods, American Chemical Society, Washington, D. C., 1990. 6. R. W. Gillham, and J. A. Cherry, “Predictability of Solute Transport in Diffusion-Controlled Hydrogeologic Regimes,” Proceedings of the Symposium on Low-Level Waste Dis- posal: Faci
39、lity Design, Construction and Operating Prac- tices, September .28/CP-0028, COW-82091 1, Volume 3, 7. R. L. Johnson, J. A. Cherry, and J. F. Pankow, “Diffusive Contaminant Transport in Natural Clay: A Field Example and Implications for Clay-Lined Waste Disposal Sites, ” Environmental Science and Tec
40、hnology, Volume 23, Num- ber 3, p. 340. 8. K. D. Barr, “Enhanced Groundwater Remediation by Bioventing and Its Simulation by Biomodeling, ” Proceed- ings of the U. S. Air Force Environmental Restoration Tech- nology Transfer Symposium. 9. R. C. Borden, “Natural Bioremediation of Hydrocarbon- Contaqi
41、nated Ground Water,” Section 9, R. D. Norris, R. E. Hinchee, R. Brown, P. L. McCarty, L. Sempnni, J. T. Wilson, D. H. Kampbell, M. Reinhard. E. J. Bouwer, R. C. Borden, T. M. Vogel, J. M. Thomas, and C. H. Ward, In-situ Bioremediation of Groundwater and Geological Material: A Review of Technologies,
42、 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Project Number 68-C8-0058, 1993. p. 379. 10. J. T. Wilson, “Natural Bioattenuation of Hazardous Organic Compounds in the Subsurface,” in press. 11. C. Y. Chiang, J. P. Salanitro, E. Y. Chai, 3. D. Colthart, and C. L. Klein, “Aerobic Biodegradation of Benzene, To
43、lu- ene, and Xylene in a Sandy Aquifer - Data Analysis and Computer Modeling,” Ground Water, Volume 27, Number 6, 1989, p. 823. 12. M. W. Kemblowski, J. P. Salanitro, G. M. Deeley, C. C. Stanly, “Fate and Transport of Residual Hydrocarbon in Groundwater - A Case Study,” Proceedings of Petroleum Hydr
44、ocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Groundwater: Pre- vention, Detection, and Restoration, November 17, 1987. 13. K. R. Caldwell, D. L. Tarbox, K. D. Barr, S. Fiorenza, L. E. Dunlap, and S. B. Thomas “Assessment of Natural Biore- mediation as an Alternative to Traditional Active Remedia- tion at Selec
45、ted Ammo Oil Company Sites,” Florida, Proceedings of the APUNWWA Conference on Petroleum Hydrocarbons and Organic Chemicals in Ground Water: Prevention, Detection, and Restoration, November 4, 1992. 14. S. R. Hutchins, W. C. Downs, J.T. Wilson, G. B. Smith, and D. K. Kovacs, “Effect of Nitrate Addit
46、ion on Bioresto- ration of Fuel-Contaminated Aquifer: Field Demonstration,” Ground Water; Volume 29, Number 4, 1991, p. 571. 15. D. W. Major, C.I. Mayfield, and J. E Barker “Biotrans- formation of Benzene by Denitrification in Aquifer Sand”, Ground Water,”Volume 26, Number 1, 1988, p. 8. 16. D. R. L
47、ovley, M. J. Baedecker, D.J. Lonergan, I. M. Cozzarelli, E. J. P. Phillips, and D. I. Siegel “Oxidation of Aromatic Contaminants Coupled to Microbial Iron Reduc- tion, Nature, Volume 339, Number 6222, 1989, p. 297. 17. D. R. Lovley, E. J. P. Phillips, and D. J. Lonergan, “Hydrogen and Formate Oxidat
48、ion Coupled to Dissimila- tory Reduction of Iron or Manganese, ” Applied and Envi- ronmental Microbiology, Volume 54, p. 1472. 18. K. H. Nealson, and C. R. Myers “Microbial Reduction of Manganese and Iron: New Approaches to Carbon Cycling,” Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol- ume 58, p. 439
49、. 19. H. R. Beller, E. A. Edwards, D. Grbi-Gali, and M. Rein- hard, “Microbial Degradation of Alkylbenzenes Under Sul- fate-Reducing and Methanogenic Conditions,” U.S. Environmental Protection Agency EPN600/2-9 11027. 20. D. W. Acton and J. F. Barker, “In Situ Biodegradation Potential of Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Anaerobic Ground- 15 API PUBL*KLb28A 96 W 0732290 0559328 24T 16 API PUBLICATION 1628A water,” Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, Volume. 9, 1992, p. 325. 21. D. Grbi-Gali, and T. M. Vogel, “Transformation of Tolu- ene and Benzene by Mixed
