1、 BIOACCUMULATION: ANEVALUATIONOFFEDERALANDSTATEREGULATORYINITIATIVESRegulatory and Scientific AffairsPublication Number 4701May 2000American Petroleum InstituteEnvironmental, Health and Safety Missionand Guiding PrinciplesMISSIONThe members of the American Petroleum Institute are dedicated to contin
2、uousefforts to improve the compatibility of our operations with the environment whileeconomically developing energy resources and supplying high quality products andservices to consumers. We recognize our responsibility to work with the public, thegovernment, and others to develop and to use natural
3、 resources in an environmen-tally sound manner while protecting the health and safety of our employees and thepublic. To meet these responsibilities, API members pledge to manage our busi-nesses according to the following principles using sound science to prioritize risksand to implement cost-effect
4、ive management practices:PRINCIPLES To recognize and to respond to community concerns about our raw materials,products and operations. To operate our plants and facilities, and to handle our raw materials and products in a manner that protects the environment, and the safety and health of our employ
5、ees and the public. To make safety, health and environmental considerations a priority in our plan-ning, and our development of new products and processes. To advise promptly, appropriate ofcials, employees, customers and the public of information on signicant industry-related safety, health and env
6、ironmental haz-ards, and to recommend protective measures. To counsel customers, transporters and others in the safe use, transportation and disposal of our raw materials, products and waste materials. To economically develop and produce natural resources and to conserve those resources by using ene
7、rgy efciently. To extend knowledge by conducting or supporting research on the safety, health and environmental effects of our raw materials, products, processes and waste materials. To commit to reduce overall emission and waste generation. To work with others to resolve problems created by handlin
8、g and disposal of haz-ardous substances from our operations. To participate with government and others in creating responsible laws, regula-tions and standards to safeguard the community, workplace and environment. To promote these principles and practices by sharing experiences and offering assista
9、nce to others who produce, handle, use, transport or dispose of similar raw materials, petroleum products and wastes.FOREWORDAPI publications necessarily address problems of a general nature. With respect to particular cir-cumstances, local, state, and federal laws and regulations should be reviewed
10、.API is not undertaking to meet the duties of employers, manufacturers, or suppliers to warn andproperly train and equip their employees, and others exposed, concerning health and safety risksand precautions, nor undertaking their obligations under local, state, or federal laws.Nothing contained in
11、any API publication is to be construed as granting any right, by implica-tion or otherwise, for the manufacture, sale, or use of any method, apparatus, or product covered byletters patent. Neither should anything contained in the publication be construed as insuring any-one against liability for inf
12、ringement of letters patent.All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or trans-mitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Contact the Publisher, API Publishi
13、ng Services, 1220 L Street, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20005.Copyright 2001 American Petroleum InstituteACKNOWLEDGMENTSTHE FOLLOWING PEOPLE ARE RECOGNIZED FOR THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS OF TIME ANDEXPERTISE DURING THIS STUDY AND IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS REPORT:API STAFF CONTACTRoger Claff, Regulatory and Sci
14、entific AffairsMEMBERS OF THE CLEAN WATER ISSUES TASK FORCEDave Pierce, Chairman, Chevron Research (2) the protection of human health; and (3) the protection ofwildlife. Although the GLI only finalized water quality criteria for a handfulof chemicals, the guidance sets forth the process for determin
15、ingadditional criteria for many more chemicals. Bioaccumulation is a criticalconsideration in the derivation of both human health and wildlife criteria.Protection of Human Health. The GLI contains human health criteria,known as human cancer values and human noncancer values, for 18pollutants, as wel
16、l as methodologies to derive criteria for additionalchemicals. Separate methodologies are provided for chemicals thatmeet minimum data requirements (Tier I), and chemicals for which lessinformation is available (Tier II). In all cases, bioaccumulation factors areused to derive water quality criteria
17、 to protect individuals from adversehealth effects (including an increased cancer risk of 1 in 100,000 or 1 x10-5) due to consumption of aquatic organisms and water, includingincidental ingestion of water during recreational activities.Protection of Wildlife. The GLI contains criteria for the protec
18、tion ofwildlife for four chemicals (DDT and its metabolites, mercury, PCBs, and2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) and a methodology to derive criteriafor all other bioaccumulative chemicals of concern. The wildlife criteriaare designed to protect mammals and birds from adverse effects due toconsum
19、ption of food and/or water from the Great Lakes system. Unlikecriteria for human health, the wildlife criteria focus on endpoints related toreproduction and population survival, rather than effects on individuals.The wildlife species selected for evaluation in the GLI include thoseBioaccumulation: A
20、n Evaluation ofFederal and State RegulatoryInitiativesES-3species in the Great Lakes Basin expected to have the highestexposures to bioaccumulative chemicals through the aquatic food web:bald eagle, herring gull, belted kingfisher, mink, and river otter.Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic (PBT) S
21、trategyThe objective of the USEPAs PBT strategy is to reduce risks to humanand ecological health by reducing exposure to PBT pollutants. PBTchemicals are defined by USEPA as those chemicals that are resistantto degradation in the environment, remain in the environment a long time,and may travel long
22、 distances (persistent); accumulate in fish and otherorganisms (bioaccumulative); and have been demonstrated to causeadverse effects in humans or wildlife (toxic). To date, USEPA hasidentified 12 PBT chemicals, including mercury, dioxins, and one PAH(benzo(a)pyrene).USEPAs program is designed to add
23、ress issues on an Agency-widebasis. Over the last year, several program offices have developedstrategies to manage PBT chemicals and meet the PBT goals, asdescribed below.Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA). To prevent the introduction ofnew PBT chemicals, USEPA has revised the pre-manufacture notic
24、eprocess under TSCA to include a new category of PBT chemicalsubstances or mixtures. The new PBT chemical category under TSCAincludes chemicals that have half-lives of greater than two months andbioaccumulation factors greater than 1000. These chemicals will besubjected to additional testing require
25、ments before their manufacture ispermitted.Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). The recentlydeveloped Draft RCRA Waste Minimization PBT Chemical List of 53chemicals was developed by screening for persistence, bioaccumulation,and toxicity. The 53 chemicals on the RCRA List will be used by U
26、SEPAto: (1) measure progress toward the national goal to reduce generation ofPBT chemicals by 50 percent by the year 2005; (2) report nationalprogress on a periodic basis; (3) identify and acknowledge industrialsectors that contribute to national progress; and (4) promote aBioaccumulation: An Evalua
27、tion ofFederal and State RegulatoryInitiativesES-4coordinated waste minimization program among federal, state, and localagencies.Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986(EPCRA) - Toxic Release Inventory. USEPA has proposed to increasethe reporting requirements of certain chemicals
28、on the Toxic ReleaseInventory. EPAs proposal reduces the reporting thresholds for themanufacture, process, and use of certain bioaccumulative chemicalsdepending on the chemicals half-life and bioconcentration factor (BCF).USEPA proposes to reduce reporting thresholds as follows: (a) 100pounds for ch
29、emicals with half-lives of two to six months and BCFs of1,000 to 5,000, and (b) 10 pounds for chemicals with half-lives greaterthan six months and BCFs greater than 5,000.Binational StrategyEnvironment Canada and USEPA have developed the Great LakesBinational Toxics strategy with the goal of virtual
30、ly eliminating from theGreat Lakes Basin toxic chemicals that result from human activity,particularly those chemicals that bioaccumulate or may affect the GreatLakes ecosystem. The Binational strategy focuses on an initial list of 12priority chemicals (the same chemicals identified in USEPAs PBTStra
31、tegy).The Binational Strategy includes eight challenges to be completed by2006. Those of potential interest to the petroleum industry include: A challenge to seek a 50 percent reduction in the deliberate use andrelease of mercury nationally, and A 75 percent reduction in releases of dioxins, furans,
32、hexachlorobenzene, and benzo(a)pyrene from sources associatedwith human activity.These goals apply both to aggregate air releases nationwide, and toreleases to water within the Great Lakes Basin.Bioaccumulation: An Evaluation ofFederal and State RegulatoryInitiativesES-5State ProgramsState initiativ
33、es regarding bioaccumulation are most often related todetermination of water quality standards. Under the Clean Water Act,USEPA develops criteria for water quality. States may either (1) adoptthe recommended criteria as developed by USEPA; (2) modify thecriteria to reflect site-specific conditions;
34、or (3) adopt criteria derivedusing other scientifically defensible methods.This Primer describes the water quality programs in specific states ofinterest to the petroleum industry: Louisiana, Texas, Indiana, New York,and Washington. In most cases, these states have implemented thebasic provisions of
35、 the water quality standards as promulgated byUSEPA. Both New York and Indiana have adopted the recentlydeveloped GLI provisions, as required by the regulation. The humanhealth criteria adopted by New York are more restrictive than thosederived by USEPA, however, due to the use of a lower acceptable
36、 levelof cancer risk, and a higher estimate of the amount of fish consumed.Bioaccumulation: An Evaluation ofFederal and State RegulatoryInitiatives11. IntroductionThe objective of this Primer is to describe the science of bioaccumulationin the aquatic environment as it relates to federal and state r
37、egulatoryactivities facing the petroleum industry. The scientific issues regardingbioaccumulation have already been discussed in detail in AmericanPetroleum Institute (API) publication number 4656; Bioaccumulation:How Chemicals Move from the Water into Fish and Other AquaticOrganisms (API, 1997).In
38、recent years, many chemicals that bioaccumulate have been underincreased scrutiny by federal and state agencies. As a result, theseagencies have started to implement additional regulations that limitchemical releases and reduce exposure to humans, aquatic life andwildlife. For example, the number of
39、 fish consumption advisoriescontinues to increase as regulatory agencies consider the fishconsumption pathway an important source of exposure to certainbioaccumulative chemicals. To reduce exposure via this route, limitshave been placed on consumption of fish from some waters.Increasingly, water qua
40、lity standards are being revised by states toconsider bioaccumulation of chemicals.This Primer is organized into three major sections. Section 2 brieflydescribes the science of bioaccumulation, including howbioaccumulation is defined by regulatory agencies, and why certainbioaccumulative chemicals h
41、ave been the focus of regulatory attention.Section 3 addresses chemical-specific bioaccumulation issues for themost important chemicals to the petroleum industry. Finally, Section 4provides information on federal and state initiatives to regulatebioaccumulative chemicals. Regulations specifically di
42、scussed includefish consumption advisories; the Great Lakes Water Quality Initiative(GLI); the Persistent, Bioaccumulative, and Toxic (PBT) Strategy; and theBinational Strategy. For each regulatory initiative, this Sectiondescribes how bioaccumulation factors are used to identify chemicals ofconcern
43、, to set standards, and/or to further reduce chemical releases.Bioaccumulation: An Evaluation ofFederal and State RegulatoryInitiatives22. Science of BioaccumulationSection 2.0 provides a brief description of the science ofbioaccumulation, including definitions of key terms and the identificationof
44、those physical/chemical and biological factors that influence thebioaccumulation potential of a chemical. As described earlier, some ofthis information has been drawn from API publication number 4656,Bioaccumulation: How Chemicals Move from the Water into Fish andOther Aquatic Organisms. This sectio
45、n concludes with a discussion onwhy regulatory agencies are concerned about bioaccumulativechemicals.2.1 DefinitionsBioconcentration of a substance is defined as an aquatic organismspassive uptake directly from water through respiratory membranes, suchas gills or other body surfaces. Accumulation fr
46、om other environmentalmedia, such as sediment, or from food is not considered. Abioconcentration factor (BCF) is the ratio of the chemicalconcentration in an organism to the concentration in water, assuming noexposure by food sources (see Text Box 2.1). The concentration in watershould be calculated
47、 from a controlled laboratory experiment where theonly source of the chemical is from water, and bioaccumulation is atsteady state (uptake equals elimination).In contrast to bioconcentration, bioaccumulation of a substance refersto an organisms general uptake and retention from water, and fromingest
48、ed materials, such as sediment or food. The bioaccumulationfactor (BAF) represents the ratio of the concentration in an organism tothe concentration in water, including both the organism and food sourcesexposed to the chemical. Unlike the BCF, the BAF is generally derivedfrom a field concentration r
49、ather than from laboratory experiments.Bioaccumulation: An Evaluation ofFederal and State RegulatoryInitiatives3The main distinction between bioaccumulationand bioconcentration is the role of ingestedsediment and food. For aquatic organismssuch as phytoplankton, uptake of chemicalsmainly occurs through the water column andcan be expressed by a BCF. However, a BAFshould be used when food chain transfer oruptake from ingested sediment becomes moreimportant. Unfortunately, the terms BAF andBCF have sometimes been usedinterchangeably by federal and state agencies.Because
