1、 Environmental Considerations for Marine Oil Spill Response API Publication Number 4706 prepared under contract by: Debra Scholz, Ann H. Walker, and Janet H. Kucklick (currently with NOAA Coastal Services Center) Scientific and Environmental Associates, Inc. 325 Mason Avenue, Cape Charles, VA 23310
2、July 2001 . 111 iv API publications necessarily address problems of a general nature. With respect to particular circumstances, local, state, and federal laws and regulations should be reviewed. API is not undertaking the duty of employers, manufacturers, or suppliers to either warn, properly train,
3、 or equip their employees, or other exposed people, on health and safety risks and precautions, nor is API undertaking their obligations under local, state, or federal laws. Information concerning safety and health risks and proper precautions with respect to particular materials and conditions shou
4、ld be obtained from the employer, the manufacturer, or supplier of that material, or from the material safety data sheet. Nothing contained in any API publication is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, for the manufacture, sale or use of any method, apparatus, or prod
5、uct covered by letters patent. Neither should anything contained in the publication be construed as insuring anyone against liability for infringement of letters patent. API publications may be used by anyone desiring to do so. Every effort has been made by the Institute to ensure the accuracy and r
6、eliability of the data contained in them; however, the Institute makes no representation, warranty, or guarantee in connection with this publication, and hereby expressly disclaims any liability for loss or damage resulting from its use or for the violations of any federal, state, or municipal regul
7、ation with which this publication may conflict. The recommendations in this document are not intended to obviate the need to apply sound judgment and are not intended to, in any way, inhibit anyone from using other practices. This publication will be reviewed and revised, reaffirmed, or withdrawn at
8、 least every five years. This publication may no longer be in effect five years after its publication date; status of the publication may be ascertained from the regulatory and scientific affairs (RASA) information specialist telephone (202) 682-8319. Suggested revisions are invited and should be su
9、bmitted to the RASA information specialist, American Petroleum Institute, 1200 L Street, Northwest, Washington, DC 20005. V Vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS THE FOLLOWING PEOPLE ARE RECOGNIZED FOR THEIR CONTRIBUTIONS OF TIME AND EXPERTISE DURING THIS STUDY AND IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT: API Staff Contac
10、t: Alexis Steen, Health and Environmental Sciences Department Members of the Marine Manual Uudate Work Grouu David Fritz, BP Amoco, Chairperson James Clow, Equiva Services LLC Ronald Goodman, Imperial Oil Ltd. Maget Hamed, Exxon Production Research Company LT. Vickie Huyck, US Coast Guard Bela James
11、, Equilon Enterprises LLC Royal Nadeau, USEPA - ERT Robert Pavia, NOAA HMRD LCDR Dave Skewes, US Coast Guard Individuals who participated in the initial planning stages for the development of this document are detailed in Appendix F. The habitat and shoreline sketches developed for this document wer
12、e provided by the NationalOceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division, Seattle, WA (1998). The In-Situ burn figures, unless indicated otherwise, were developed for this document by Alan A. Allen, Spiltec, Inc., Woodinville, WA (1998). vii viii
13、ABSTRACT When planning response activities for an oil spill, decision-makers must react to a wide range of circumstances. Decisions will vary depending on the type of petroleum product spilled and the nature of the impacted habitat. Response decisions will be based on tradeoffs dealing with the envi
14、ronmental consequences of the spilled oil and the response method selected, as well as the efficiency and effectiveness of the method. Selecting appropriate protection, response, and cleanup techniques, both before and following an oil spill, affects the ultimate environmental impact and cost result
15、ing from a spill. The American Petroleum Institute, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the US Coast Guard, and the US Environmental Protection Agency jointly developed this document as a tool for contingency planners and field responders to identify response techniques that have mi
16、nimal ecological impacts and also minimize the impact of the oil. Guidance is provided through matrix tables indicating the relative environmental consequences of the different response options used for various categories of oil in open water and shoreline habitats. The document provides information
17、 on 28 response methods and classifies their relative environmental impacts for combinations of five oil types and 25 marine habitats. ix X TABLE OF CONTENTS Section Page Foreword . v Ac know le dgment s v11 Abstract . ix 1.0 How to Use This Document . 1-1 2.0 Technical Background 2-1 2.1 2.2 2.3 Pr
18、operties and Fate of Oil . 2-1 . Oil Classification . 2-1 Processes That Change the Location and Properties of Oil on Shorelines 2-11 Effects of Oil on Marine Ecosystems 2-14 Overview of Marine Ecosystems 2-14 Post-spill Recovery. 2-21 Setting Priorities: Environmental Vulnerability . 2-24 Effects o
19、f Oil on Marine Life . 2-19 Strategies for Selecting Response Methods 2-23 3.0 Summary of Spill Response Methods . 3-1 Impact of Methods in the Absence of Oil 3-1 Approach Used in the Evaluation of Methods 3-4 Classification of Oil Response Impacts . 3.4 3.1 3.2 Evaluation of Relative Impact of Meth
20、ods . 3-5 Integrating Response Methods . 3-5 Proper Application of Methods 3-5 Interpreting the Tables . 3-5 Restrictions for Using Response Methods 3-6 3.3 Response Techniques . 3-7 Introduction . 3-7 xi TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Section Page 3.3 Response Techniques. (cont.) Natural Recovery 3-8 Bo
21、oming . 3-9 Skimming . 3-11 Barriers/Berms 3-13 Physical Herduig . 3-14 Manual Oil Removal/ Cleaning 3-15 Mechanical OiI Removal 3-16 Sorbents 3-18 Vacuum 3-20 Debris Removal . 3-21 Sediment Reworking/Tilling 3-22 Vegetation Cutting/Removal . 3-23 Flooding . 3-24 Low-pressure, Ambient Water Flushing
22、 . 3-25 High-pressure, Ambient Water Flushing 3-26 Low-pressure, Hot Water Flushing 3-27 High-pressure, Hot Water Flushing . 3-28 Steam Cleaning 3-29 Sand Blasting . 3-30 Dispersants . 3-31 Emulsion-treating Agents 3-32 Elasticity Modifiers . 3-33 Herding Agents . 3-34 Solidifiers . 3-35 Shoreline C
23、leaning Agents (Surface Washing Agents) 3-36 Nutrient Enrichment (Biostimulation) . 3-37 Natural Microbe Seeding (Bioaugmentation) . 3-39 In-sifu Burning . 341 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Section Page 4.0 Guidelines for Developing Response Actions . 4-1 4.1 4.2 Goals 4-1 Objectives . 41 Strategies
24、 4-2 Tactics . 4-2 Windows of Opportunity 4-3 Incident-specific Feasibility Issues . 4-5 On-water Feasibility Issues . 4-7 Shoreline Feasibility Issues . 4-17 Process for Developing Inadent-specific Strategies . 4-21 Integration of On-water Response Options 4-21 Shoreline Strategies . 4-23 5.0 Evalu
25、ation of Response Options in Various Habitats 5-1 5.1 Introduction . 5-1 5.2 On-water Habitats 5-2 Feasibility and Effectiveness . 5-4 Relative Environmental Impacts for On-water Response Options . 5-7 Offshore 5-8 Bays and Estuaries 5-13 5-3 Shallow Subtidal 5-18 Coral Reefs . 5-20 Seagrasses . 5-2
26、6 Kelp . 5-33 Soft Bottom . 5-38 Mixed and Hard Bottom 5-43 . xu1 TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Section Page 5.4 Shoreline Intertidal 5-48 Exposed. Rocky Shores 5-50 Exposed. Solid. Man-made Structures . 5.56 Exposed. Wave-cut Platforms . 5-61 Sand Beaches 5-67 Tundra Cliffs 5-74 Mixed Sand and Gravel B
27、eaches 5-80 Gravel Beaches 5-88 Riprap . 5-95 Exposed Tidal Flats 5-101 Sheltered. Rocky Shores and Clay Scarps . 5-107 Sheltered. Solid. Man-made Structures . 5-113 Peat Shores . 5-118 Sheltered Tidal Flats . 5-124 Salt to Brackish Marshes 5-130 Mangroves 5-136 Inundated, Lowland Tundra . 5-142 5.5
28、 Ice 5-148 Habitat Description . 5-148 6.0 Evaluation of Response Options by Oil Type 6-1 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.) Appendices Page A Regulatory Considerations . A-1 B Oil Characteristics . B-1 C Grain-size Scale . C-1 D Shoreline Habitat Synonyms D-1 E Additional Reading List . E-1 F Synopsis o
29、f Document Preparation. F-1 xv LIST OF FIGURES Figure Description 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Page A comparison of the environmental consequences of three different response methods. plus natural recovery. on a single spill over time . 2-25 Types of response options during a major o
30、il spill 4-4 Schematic representation of areal coverage rates for selected spill response systems . 4.8 Average oil thickness versus potential response options 4-9 Primary spill response options under various wind/ sea conditions and oil film thicknesses 4-14 Spatial considerations for integrated op
31、erations on a continuous release spill 4-24 Coral Reef Sketch 5-22 Seagrasses Sketch . 5.28 Kelp Sketch . 5-34 Soft Bottom Sketch . 5.39 Mixed and Hard Bottom Sketch . 5-44 Exposed. Rocky Shores Sketch . 5-51 Exposed, Solid, Man-made Structures Sketch . 5-57 Exposed, Wave-cut Platforms Sketch . 5-62
32、 Sand Beaches Sketch 5-69 Tundra Cliffs Sketch 5-75 Mixed Sand and Gravel Beaches Sketch . 5-82 Gravel Beaches Sketch . 5-89 xvi 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 LIST OF FIGURES (cont.) Description Page Rip ap Sketch 5-96 Exposed Tidal Flats Sketch . 5-102 Sheltered. Rocky Shores and Clay Scarps Sketch 5-
33、108 Sheltered. Solid. Man-made Structures Sketch . 5-114 Peat Shores Sketch 5-119 Sheltered Tidal Flats Sketch . 5-125 Marshes (Salt to Brackish) Sketch 5-131 Mangroves Sketch . 5-137 Inundated, Lowland Tundra Sketch . 5-143 xvii 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 LIST OF TABLES Description Page Chara
34、cteristics of t,e five oil classifications used in tis document . 2-2 Approximate evaporation percentages for various classes of oil . 2-7 Relative impacts of response methods in the absence of oil in on-water and shallow subtidal environments . . 3-2 Relative impacts of response methods in the abse
35、nce of oil in shoreline intertidal and ice environments 3-3 Incident-specific on-water strategy issues . . 4-5 Incident-specific shoreline strategy issues 4-6 Factors favoring feasibility and effectiveness of on-water spill response 5-5 Estimate of wind speed and sea height influences on effectivene
36、ss and feasibility of on-water response options by oil type . 5-6 Relative environmental impact from response methods for OFFSHORE 5-9 Relative environmental impact from response methods for BAYS AND ESTUARIES . 5-14 Relative environmental impact from response methods for CORAL habitats 5-23 Relativ
37、e environmental impact from response methods for SEAGRASS habitats 5-29 Relative environmental impact from response methods for KELP habitats 5-35 c Relative environmental impact from response methods for SOFT BOTTOM habitats 5-40 xviii LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table Description Page 15 16 17 18 19 20
38、 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 Relative environmental impact from response methods for MIXED AND HARD BOTTOM habitats . 5-45 Relative environmental impact from response methods for EXPOSED, ROCKY SHORES . .5-52 Relative environmental impact from response methods for EXPOSED, SOLID, MAN-MADE STRUCTURES .5-58
39、Relative environmental impact from response methods for EXPOSED, WAVE-CUT PLATFORM 5-63 Relative environmental impact from response methods for SAND BEACHES . 5-70 Relative environmental impact from response methods for TUNDRA CLIFFS 5-76 Relative environmental impact from response methods for MIXED
40、 SAND AND GRAVEL BEACHES . 5-83 Relative environmental impact from response methods for GRAVEL BEACHES .5-90 Relative environmental impact from response methods for RIPRAP . 5-97 Relative environmental impact from response methods for EXPOSED TIDAL FLATS . 5-103 Relative environmental impact from re
41、sponse methods for SHELTERED, ROCKY SHORES AND CLAY SCARPS . 5-109 Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHELTERED, SOLID, MAN-MADE STRUCTUREC . .5-115 Relative environmental impact from response methods for PEAT SHORES 5-120 xix LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table Description Page 28 29
42、30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHELTERED TIDAL FLATS 5-126 Relative environmental impact from response methods for SALT TO BRACKISH MARSHES . 5-132 Relative environmental impact from response methods for MANGROVES. . .5-138 Relative environmenta
43、l impact from response methods for INUNDATED, LOWLAND TUNDRA -5-144 Relative environmental impact from response methods for ACCESSIBLE ICE environments. 5-149 Relative environmental impact from response methods for INACCESSIBLE ICE environments . .5-153 GASOLINE PRODUCTS (Category I): Relative envir
44、onmental impact from response methods for ON-WATER habitats . 6-2 DIESEL-LIKE PRODUCTS AND LIGHT CRUDE OILS (Category II): Relative environmental impact from response methods for ON-WATER habitats 6-3 MEDIUM GRADE CRUDE OILS AND INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS (Category III): Relative environmental impact fro
45、m response methods for ON-WATER habitats . .6-4 HEAVY CRUDE OILS AND RESIDUAL PRODUCTS (Category IV): Relative environmental impact from response methods for ON-WATER habitats 6-5 NON-FLOATING OIL PRODUCTS (Category V): Relative environmental impact response methods for ON-WATER habitats .6-6 GASOLI
46、NE PRODUCTS (Category I): Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHALLOW SUBTIDAL habitats 6-7 xx LIST OF TABLES (cont.) Table Description Page 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 DIESEL-LIKE PRODUCTS AND LIGHT CRUDE OILS (Category II): Relative environmental impact from response methods
47、for SHALLOW SUBTIDAL habitats. 6-8 MEDIUM GRADE CRUDE OILS AND INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS (Category III): Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHALLOW SUBTIDAL habitats . 6-9 HEAVY CRUDE OILS AND RESIDUAL PRODUCTS (Category IV): Relative environmental impact from response methods for S
48、HALLOW SUBTIDAL habitats. 6-10 NON-FLOATING OIL PRODUCTS (Category V): Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHALLOW SUBTIDAL habitats . 6-11 GASOLINE PRODUCTS (Category I): Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHORELINE INTERTIDAL habitats 6-12 DIESEL-LIKE PRODU
49、CTS AND LIGHT CRUDE OILS (Category II): Relative environmental impact from response methods for spills in SHORELINE INTERTIDAL habitats 6-13 MEDIUM GRADE CRUDE OILS AND INTERMEDIATE PRODUCTS (Category III): Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHORELINE INTERTIDAL habitats 6-14 HEAVY CRUDE OILS AND RESIDUAL PRODUCE (Category IV): Relative environmental impact from response methods for SHORELINE INTERTIDAL habitats 6-15 NON-FLOATING OIL PRODUCTS (Category V): Relative environ- mental impact from response methods for SHORELINE INTE
