1、ACI 201.2R-08Reported by ACI Committee 201Guide to Durable ConcreteGuide to Durable ConcreteFirst PrintingJune 2008ISBN 978-0-87031-284-7American Concrete InstituteAdvancing concrete knowledgeCopyright by the American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. All rights reserved. This materialmay no
2、t be reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or otherdistribution and storage media, without the written consent of ACI.The technical committees responsible for ACI committee reports and standards strive to avoid ambiguities,omissions, and errors in thes
3、e documents. In spite of these efforts, the users of ACI documents occasionallyfind information or requirements that may be subject to more than one interpretation or may beincomplete or incorrect. Users who have suggestions for the improvement of ACI documents arerequested to contact ACI. Proper us
4、e of this document includes periodically checking for errata atwww.concrete.org/committees/errata.asp for the most up-to-date revisions.ACI committee documents are intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate thesignificance and limitations of its content and recommendations and
5、 who will accept responsibility for theapplication of the material it contains. Individuals who use this publication in any way assume all risk andaccept total responsibility for the application and use of this information.All information in this publication is provided “as is” without warranty of a
6、ny kind, either express or implied,including but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose ornon-infringement.ACI and its members disclaim liability for damages of any kind, including any special, indirect, incidental,or consequential damages, includ
7、ing without limitation, lost revenues or lost profits, which may resultfrom the use of this publication.It is the responsibility of the user of this document to establish health and safety practices appropriate tothe specific circumstances involved with its use. ACI does not make any representations
8、 with regard tohealth and safety issues and the use of this document. The user must determine the applicability of allregulatory limitations before applying the document and must comply with all applicable laws and regulations,including but not limited to, United States Occupational Safety and Healt
9、h Administration (OSHA) healthand safety standards.Order information: ACI documents are available in print, by download, on CD-ROM, through electronicsubscription, or reprint and may be obtained by contacting ACI.Most ACI standards and committee reports are gathered together in the annually revised
10、ACI Manual ofConcrete Practice (MCP).American Concrete Institute38800 Country Club DriveFarmington Hills, MI 48331U.S.A.Phone: 248-848-3700Fax: 248-848-3701www.concrete.orgACI 201.2R-08 supersedes ACI 201.2R-01 and was adopted and published June 2008.Copyright 2008, American Concrete Institute.All r
11、ights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by anymeans, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic ormechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproductionor for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or de
12、vice, unless permission in writingis obtained from the copyright proprietors.201.2R-1ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Manuals, StandardPractices, and Commentaries are intended for guidance inplanning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction.This document is intended for the use of individual
13、s who arecompetent to evaluate the significance and limitations of itscontent and recommendations and who will acceptresponsibility for the application of the material it contains.The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and allresponsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall notbe
14、 liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.Reference to this document shall not be made in contractdocuments. If items found in this document are desired by theArchitect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, theyshall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation bythe Archite
15、ct/Engineer.Guide to Durable ConcreteReported by ACI Committee 201ACI 201.2R-08This guide describes specific types of concrete deterioration. Each chaptercontains a discussion of the mechanisms involved and the recommendedrequirements for individual components of concrete, quality considerationsfor
16、concrete mixtures, construction procedures, and influences of the exposureenvironment, which are all important considerations to ensure concretedurability.This guide was developed for conventional concrete but is generallyapplicable to specialty concretes; however, specialty concretes, such asroller
17、-compacted or pervious concrete, may have unique durability-relatedissues that deserve further attention that are not addressed herein. Readersshould consult other ACI documents for more detailed information onspecial concretes of interest.Keywords: abrasion resistance; acid attack; admixture; aggre
18、gate; airentrainment; alkali-aggregate reaction; calcium chloride; carbonation; cementpaste; corrosion; curing; deicer; deterioration; durability; fly ash; freezing andthawing; mixture proportion; petrography; pozzolan; reinforced concrete; saltscaling; sea water exposure; silica fume; skid resistan
19、ce; spalling; strength;sulfate attack; supplementary cementitious materials; temperature; water-cementitious material ratio.CONTENTSChapter 1Introduction and scope, p. 201.2R-2Chapter 2Notation and definitions, p. 201.2R-32.1Notation and definitions Chapter 3Fresh concrete, p. 201.2R-33.1Introductio
20、n3.2Pore structure3.3Mixing effects3.4Placement and consolidation3.5Bleeding3.6Cracking of fresh concrete3.7SummaryChapter 4Freezing and thawing of concrete,p. 201.2R-54.1Introduction4.2Frost attack of concrete made with durable aggregates4.3Frost attack of concrete made with nondurableaggregatesCha
21、pter 5Alkali-aggregate reaction, p. 201.2R-135.1Introduction5.2Types of reactionsJon B. Ardahl William G. Hime Stella Lucie Marusin Niels ThaulowAndrew J. Boyd Charles J. Hookham Mohamad A. Nagi Michael D. A. ThomasPaul W. Brown R. Doug Hooton Robert E. Neal Paul J. TikalskyRamon J. Carrasquillo Bri
22、an B. Hope Charles K. Nmai David TrejoRachel J. Detwiler Donald J. Janssen Karthik H. Obla Claude B. Trusty, Jr.Jonathan E. Dongell Roy H. Keck Robert C. ONeill Thomas J. Van DamPer Fidjestol Mohammad S. Khan David A. Rothstein Orville R. Werner, IIHarvey H. Haynes Kimberly E. Kurtis Mauro J. Scali
23、Terry J. WillemsGeoffrey Hichborn, Sr. Joseph F. Lamond Hannah C. Schell Michelle L. WilsonEugene D. Hill, Jr.*Michael L. Leming Jan P. Skalny*Deceased.Russell L. HillChairKevin J. FolliardSecretary201.2R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT5.3Evaluating aggregates for potential alkali-aggregatereactivity5.4Preve
24、ntive measuresChapter 6Chemical attack, p. 201.2R-226.1Introduction6.2Chemical sulfate attack by sulfate from sourcesexternal to concrete6.3Physical salt attack6.4Seawater exposure6.5Acid attack6.6CarbonationChapter 7Corrosion of metals and other materials embedded in concrete, p. 201.2R-287.1Introd
25、uction7.2 General principles of corrosion initiation in concrete7.3Propagation of corrosion7.4Corrosion-related properties of concreting materials7.5Preventing corrosion7.6Corrosion of materials other than steel7.7SummaryChapter 8Abrasion, p. 201.2R-338.1Introduction8.2Testing concrete for resistanc
26、e to abrasion8.3Factors affecting abrasion resistance of concrete8.4Recommendations for obtaining abrasion-resistantconcrete surfaces8.5Studded tire and tire chain wear on concrete8.6Skid resistance of pavementsChapter 9References, p. 201.2R-369.1Referenced standards and reports9.2Cited referencesAp
27、pendix AMethod for preparing extract for analysis of water-soluble sulfate in soil,p. 201.2R-49CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION AND SCOPEConcrete is one of the most widely used constructionmaterials in the world. This fact attests to concretesperformance as a versatile building material. Durabilityrepresents o
28、ne of the key characteristics of concrete that hasled to its widespread use. Durability of hydraulic-cementconcrete is determined by its ability to resist weathering action,chemical attack, abrasion, or any other process of deterioration.Durable concrete will retain its original form, quality, andse
29、rviceability when exposed to its environment. Properlydesigned, proportioned, placed, finished, tested, inspected,and cured concrete is capable of providing decades of servicewith little or no maintenance. Certain conditions or envi-ronments exist that will lead to concrete deterioration.Attacking m
30、echanisms can be chemical, physical, ormechanical in nature, and originate from external or internalsources. Chemical and physical attacking mechanisms oftenwork synergistically. Depending on the nature of attack,distress may be concentrated in the paste, aggregate, orreinforcing components of the c
31、oncrete (or a combinationthereof).The various factors influencing durability and the particularmechanism of deterioration should be considered in thecontext of the environmental conditions to which theconcrete would be subjected. In addition, considerationshould be given to the microclimate to which
32、 the specificstructural element is exposed. Deterioration, or the severityof deterioration, of a given structure may be affected by itsorientation to wind, precipitation, or temperature. Forinstance, exterior girders in a bridge structure may beexposed to a different and more aggressive environment
33、thaninterior girders.The concept of service life is increasingly used for thedesign of new structures. To provide durable concrete, thespecific demands on the concrete in its intended use shouldbe given careful consideration. Required service life, designrequirements, and expected exposure environme
34、nts (macroand micro) should be determined before defining theappropriate materials and mixture proportions necessary toproduce concrete suitable for a particular application. Theuse of good materials and proper mixture proportioning willnot necessarily ensure durable concrete. Appropriatemeasures of
35、 quality control, testing, inspection, placementpractices, and workmanship are essential to the productionof durable concrete. Properly designed testing and inspectionprograms that use trained and certified personnel are alsoimportant to ensure that durable concrete is produced. ACIhas a number of c
36、ertification programs that are applicable.This guide discusses the more important causes of concretedeterioration and gives recommendations on how to preventsuch damage. Chapters on fresh concrete, freezing andthawing, alkali-aggregate reaction (AAR), aggressive chemicalexposure, corrosion of metals
37、, and abrasion are included.Fire resistance of concrete and cracking are not addressed indetail, because they are covered in ACI 216.1, 224R, and224.1R, respectively.Fresh or unhardened concrete can be consolidated andmolded to the desired shape to serve its intended purpose.During this stage, a num
38、ber of properties significantlyinfluencing the durability of the hardened concrete areestablished. Pore structure development, air-void systemformation, material mixing, placement and consolidation,curing, and minimizing or eliminating cracking of plasticconcrete are all important to the ultimate du
39、rability of concrete.Deterioration of concrete exposed to freezing conditionscan occur when there is sufficient internal moisture presentthat can freeze at the given exposure conditions. Freezing-and-thawing damage is a serious problem, and is greatlyaccelerated by the use of deicing salts. Fortunat
40、ely, concretemade with high-quality aggregates, a low water-cementi-tious material ratio (w/cm), a proper air-void system, and thatis allowed to mature before being exposed to freezing andthawing, is highly resistant to freezing-and-thawing damage.Although aggregate is commonly considered to be iner
41、tfiller, this is not always the case in a concrete environment.Certain aggregates can react with alkali hydroxides fromcement and other materials, causing expansion and deterioration.GUIDE TO DURABLE CONCRETE 201.2R-3Potential issues with AARs can often be identified byreviewing the historical perfo
42、rmance of candidate materialsunder similar exposure conditions and by evaluation basedon the appropriate laboratory testing techniques. Methods formitigating AARs are: use of low-alkali cement, avoidance ofreactive aggregate, use of sufficient levels of suitablesupplementary cementitious materials (
43、SCMs), use ofsufficient levels of appropriate chemical admixtures, or acombination of these.Sulfates and other salts in soil, groundwater, or seawatermay have a deleterious effect on hardened concrete, but canbe resisted by using suitable cementitious materials andproper quality control and curing o
44、f a properly proportionedconcrete mixture.Because the topic of delayed ettringite formation (DEF)remains a controversial issue and is the subject of variousongoing research projects, no definitive guidance on DEF isprovided in this document. It is expected that future versionsof this document will a
45、ddress DEF in significant detail.Quality concrete can resist occasional exposure to mildacids, but no portland-cement concrete offers good resistance toattack by strong acids or compounds that convert to acids;special protection is necessary in these cases. Substancesthat are initially inert may con
46、vert to acids over time, and canalso present durability issues.Corrosion of embedded steel reinforcement producesreaction products that occupy additional volume. This canlead to internal stress within reinforced concrete and subsequentdistress. The spalling of concrete due to corrosion is aparticula
47、rly serious problem. Corrosion can also weakenreinforcing steel and thus reduce the structural capacity ofconcrete. One of the principal causes of reinforcing steelcorrosion is the ingress of chloride made available fromsources such as deicing salts. Ample cover over the steel anduse of a low-permea
48、bility, air-entrained concrete will ensuredurability in the majority of cases. More positive protection,such as epoxy-coated reinforcing steel, cathodic protection,noncorrosive reinforcement, or chemical corrosion inhibitors,is needed for severe exposures.Abrasion can be a problem in industrial floo
49、rs from trafficor process conditions. In hydraulic structures, particles ofsand or gravel in flowing water can erode surfaces. The useof high-quality concrete and, in extreme cases, abrasion-resistant aggregate, will usually result in adequate durabilityunder these exposures. The use of studded tires on vehicleshas caused serious wear in concrete pavements; conventionalconcrete will not withstand this damage. Impact caused byoperating equipment, such as fork lifts and heavy equipment,will pulverize concrete of inadequate strength, and may req
