1、Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggregate ConcreteReported by ACI Committee 213ACI 213R-14First PrintingJune 2014ISBN: 978-0-87031-897-9Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggregate ConcreteCopyright by the American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI. All rights reserved. This material may not b
2、e reproduced or copied, in whole or part, in any printed, mechanical, electronic, film, or other distribution and storage media, without the written consent of ACI.The technical committees responsible for ACI committee reports and standards strive to avoid ambiguities, omissions, and errors in these
3、 documents. In spite of these efforts, the users of ACI documents occasionally find information or requirements that may be subject to more than one interpretation or may be incomplete or incorrect. Users who have suggestions for the improvement of ACI documents are requested to contact ACI via the
4、errata website at http:/concrete.org/Publications/DocumentErrata.aspx. Proper use of this document includes periodically checking for errata for the most up-to-date revisions.ACI committee documents are intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitation
5、s of its content and recommendations and who will accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains. Individuals who use this publication in any way assume all risk and accept total responsibility for the application and use of this information.All information in this publication
6、 is provided “as is” without warranty of any kind, either express or implied, including but not limited to, the implied warranties of merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose or non-infringement.ACI and its members disclaim liability for damages of any kind, including any special, indirect,
7、 incidental, or consequential damages, including without limitation, lost revenues or lost profits, which may result from the use of this publication.It is the responsibility of the user of this document to establish health and safety practices appropriate to the specific circumstances involved with
8、 its use. ACI does not make any representations with regard to health and safety issues and the use of this document. The user must determine the applicability of all regulatory limitations before applying the document and must comply with all applicable laws and regulations, including but not limit
9、ed to, United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) health and safety standards.Participation by governmental representatives in the work of the American Concrete Institute and in the development of Institute standards does not constitute governmental endorsement of ACI or the
10、standards that it develops.Order information: ACI documents are available in print, by download, on CD-ROM, through electronic subscription, or reprint and may be obtained by contacting ACI.Most ACI standards and committee reports are gathered together in the annually revised ACI Manual of Concrete
11、Practice (MCP).American Concrete Institute38800 Country Club DriveFarmington Hills, MI 48331Phone: +1.248.848.3700Fax: +1.248.848.3701www.concrete.orgSYNOPSISThe guide summarizes the present state of technology, presents and interprets the data on lightweight-aggregate concrete from many laboratory
12、studies and the accumulated experience resulting from its successful use, and reviews performance of structural light-weight aggregate concrete in service.This guide includes a definition of lightweight-aggregate concrete for structural purposes and discusses, in a condensed fashion, the production
13、methods for and inherent properties of structural lightweight aggregates. Current practices for propor-tioning, mixing, transporting, and placing; properties of hardened concrete; and the design of structural concrete with reference to ACI 318 are all discussed.Keywords: abrasion resistance; aggrega
14、te; bond; contact zone; durability; fire resistance; internal curing; lightweight aggregate; lightweight concrete; mixture proportion; shear; shrinkage; specified density concrete; strength; thermal conductivity.CONTENTSCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION AND SCOPE, p. 21.1Introduction, p. 21.2Scope, p. 2CHAPTER
15、2NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS, p. 32.1Notation, p. 32.2Definitions, p. 4CHAPTER 3STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATES, p. 43.1Internal structure of lightweight aggregates, p. 43.2Production of lightweight aggregates, p. 43.3Aggregate properties, p. 5CHAPTER 4SPECIFYING, PROPORTIONING, MIXING, AND HANDLING,
16、 p. 74.1Scope, p. 74.2Specifying lightweight concrete, p. 74.3Materials, p. 74.4Mixture proportioning criteria, p. 84.5Proportioning and adjusting mixtures, p. 94.6Aggregate preparation for mixing, p. 104.7Placing and finishing, p. 104.8Curing, p. 114.9Laboratory and field control, p. 11Jiri G. Gryg
17、ar*, Chair Mauricio Lopez*, SecretaryACI 213R-14Guide for Structural Lightweight-Aggregate ConcreteReported by ACI Committee 213David J. AkersTheodore W. BremnerMichael A. CaldaroneDavid A. CrockerPer FidjestolDean M. GoldenRalph D. GruberThomas A. Holm*Bruce W. JonesEdward S. KluckowskiMervyn J. Ko
18、walskyRonald L. KozikowskiMichael L. LemingKeith A. McCabeFred Meyer*Avi A. MorDipak T. ParekhBruce W. RammeJohn. P. Ries*G. Michael Robinson*Jeffrey F. SpeckJody R. WallWilliam H. WolfeShelley WrightMin-Hong ZhangConsulting MembersTor Arne HammerW. Calvin McCallWilliam X. SypherAlexander M. Vaysbur
19、dACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance and limitations of its content and recommendations and who wi
20、ll accept responsibility for the application of the material it contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.Reference to this document shall not be made in contrac
21、t documents. If items found in this document are desired by the Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by the Architect/Engineer.ACI 213R-14 supersedes ACI 213R-03 and was adopted and published in June 2014Copyright 2
22、014, American Concrete Institute.All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduc-tion or for use
23、in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing is obtained from the copyright proprietors.*Members of the Task group who prepared the update of this guide.Deceased.Special thanks to the following associate members for their contribution to the revision of this document:
24、 Reid W. Castrodale, and W. Jason Weiss.The committee would also like to thank the late William X. Sypher for his contribution to revision of the guide.1CHAPTER 5PHYSICAL AND MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE, p. 115.1Scope, p. 115.2Compressive strength, p. 115.3Dens
25、ity of lightweight concrete, p. 125.4Tensile strength, p. 125.5Modulus of elasticity, p. 145.6Poissons ratio, p. 145.7Ultimate strain, p. 145.8Creep, p. 155.9Shrinkage, p. 155.10Bond strength, p. 165.11Thermal expansion, p. 165.12Heat flow properties, p. 175.13Fire endurance, p. 185.14Energy absorpt
26、ion and blast resistance, p. 19CHAPTER 6DURABILITY OF STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT-AGGREGATE CONCRETE, p. 206.1General, p. 206.2Absorption, p. 206.3Contact zone / interface, p. 206.4Resistance to corrosion, p. 226.5Alkali-aggregate reaction, p. 246.6Abrasion resistance, p. 24CHAPTER 7DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL
27、LIGHTWEIGHT-AGGREGATE CONCRETE, p. 247.1Scope, p. 247.2General considerations, p. 247.3Modulus of elasticity, p. 257.4Tensile strength, p. 257.5Shear and diagonal tension, p. 257.6Development length, p. 267.7Deflection, p. 277.8Columns, p. 277.9Prestressed lightweight concrete, p. 277.10Thermal desi
28、gn considerations, p. 287.11Seismic design, p. 287.12Fatigue, p. 28CHAPTER 8PERFORMANCE AND APPLICATIONS OF LIGHTWEIGHT-AGGREGATE CONCRETE, p. 308.1Scope and historical development, p. 308.2Structural efficiency of lightweight concrete, p. 308.3Applications of high-performance lightweight concrete,
29、p. 308.4Self-consolidating lightweight concrete, p. 348.5Advantages of lightweight concrete, p. 358.6Sustainability of lightweight concrete, p. 36CHAPTER 9ENHANCED PERFORMANCE DUE TO INTERNALLY STORED WATER (INTERNAL CURING), p. 369.1Concept of internal curing, p. 369.2Mixture proportioning for inte
30、rnal curing, p. 379.3Properties of the aggregate for internal curing, p. 389.4Influence of internal curing on concrete properties and behavior, p. 399.5Field experience, p. 449.6Internal curing summary and potential impact on sustainability, p. 45CHAPTER 10REFERENCES, p. 45CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTION AND
31、SCOPE1.1IntroductionThe objectives of this guide are to provide information and guidelines for designing and using lightweight concrete. By using such guidelines and construction practices, the struc-tures can be designed and performance predicted with the same confidence and reliability as normalwe
32、ight concrete and other building materials.This guide covers the unique characteristics and perfor-mance of structural lightweight-aggregate (LWA) concrete. General historical information is provided along with detailed information on LWA and proportioning, mixing, and placing of concrete containing
33、 these aggregates. The physical properties of the structural LWA, along with design information and applications, are also included.Structural lightweight concrete has many and varied applications, including multistory building frames and floors, curtain walls, shell roofs, folded plates, bridge dec
34、ks and girders, prestressed or precast elements of all types, and marine structures. In many cases, the architectural expres-sion of form, combined with functional design, is achieved more readily with structural lightweight concrete than with any other medium. Many architects, engineers, and contra
35、c-tors recognize the inherent economies and advantages offered by this material, as evidenced by the many impres-sive lightweight concrete structures found throughout the world.Because much of the properties and performance of light-weight concrete are dependent on the type of LWA used, the ready mi
36、x supplier, LWA producer, or both, might be an important source of specific information for attaining the project objectives.1.2Scope1.2.1 Historical backgroundThe first known use of lightweight concrete dates back over 2000 years. There are several lightweight concrete structures in the Mediter-ran
37、ean region, but the three most notable structures were built during the early Roman Empire and include the Port of Cosa, the Pantheon Dome, and the Coliseum.Built in approximately 273 BC, the Port of Cosa used lightweight concrete made from natural volcanic materials. These early builders learned th
38、at expanded aggregates were better suited for marine facilities than the locally available beach sand and gravel. They traveled 25 mi. (40 km) to the northeast to quarry volcanic aggregates at the Volcine complex for use in the harbor at Cosa (Bremner et al. 1994). This harbor on the west coast of I
39、taly consists of a series of American Concrete Institute Copyrighted Material www.concrete.org2 GUIDE FOR STRUCTURAL LIGHTWEIGHT-AGGREGATE CONCRETE (ACI 213R-14)four piers (13 ft 4 m cubes) extending into the sea. For two millennia the piers have withstood the forces of nature with only surface abra
40、sion. They became obsolete only because of siltation of the harbor.Built circa 126 AD, the Pantheon incorporates concrete varying in density from bottom to top of the dome. Roman engineers had sufficient confidence in lightweight concrete to build a dome with a diameter of 142 ft (43 m), which was n
41、ot exceeded for almost two millennia. The structure is in excellent condition and is still being used today for spiritual purposes (Bremner et al. 1994).The dome contains intricate recesses formed with wooden formwork to reduce the dead load and the imprint of the grain of the wood can still be seen
42、. The excellent cast surfaces that are visible to the observer clearly show that these early builders had successfully mastered the art of casting concrete made with LWA. The Roman writer, architect, and engineer, Vitruvius, who took special interest in building construction, commented on several un
43、usual features of the Pantheon. The fact that he did not single-out lightweight concrete for comment could imply that these early builders were fully familiar with this material (Morgan 1960).Built in 75 to 80 AD, the Coliseum is a gigantic amphithe-ater with a seating capacity of 50,000 spectators.
44、 The foun-dations were cast with lightweight concrete using crushed volcanic lava. The walls were made using porous, crushed-brick aggregate. Vaults and spaces between the walls were constructed using porous-tufa cut stone.1.2.2 Development of manufacturing processAfter the fall of the Roman Empire,
45、 lightweight concrete use was limited until the 20th century when a new type of manufac-tured expanded shale LWA became available for commercial use.The rotary kiln process was developed in 1918 and is used to produce expanded shale, clay, and slate. LWAs are manu-factured by heating small particles
46、 of shale, clay, or slate in a rotary kiln. A particle size was discovered that, with limited crushing, produced an aggregate grading suitable for making lightweight concrete (Expanded Shale, Clay and Slate Insti-tute 1971). When clay bricks are manufactured, it is impor-tant to heat the preformed c
47、lay slowly so that evolved gases have an opportunity to diffuse out of the clay. If they are heated too rapidly, a bloater is formed that does not meet the dimensional uniformity essential for a successfully fired brick. These rejected bricks were recognized by Hayde as an ideal material for making
48、a special concrete. When reduced to appropriate aggregate size and grading, these bloated bricks could be used to produce a lightweight concrete with mechanical properties similar to regular concrete.Commercial production of expanded slag (that is, expanded shale, clay, or slate) began in 1928, and
49、in 1948, the first structural-quality sintered-shale LWA was produced using shale in eastern Pennsylvania.One of the earliest uses of reinforced lightweight concrete was in the construction of ships and barges in the early 1900s. The U.S. Emergency Fleet Building Corporation found that for concrete to be effective in ship construction, the concrete would need a maximum density of about 110 lb/ft3(1760 kg/m3) and a compressive strength of approximately 4000 psi (28 MPa) (Expanded Shale, Clay, and Slate
