1、A m O 4 50 I n o c Y =! m 3 0.7 O * 0.038 -I I Welding Aluminum: Theory and Practice The Aluminum Association Incorporated www.aluminum. org This book has been edited, revised and expanded by The Aluminum Association and by member companies represented on The Aluminum Association?s Technical Committ
2、ee - Welding and Joining. Tony Anderson, AlcoTec Wire Corporation (Committee Chairman) Frank Armao, Lincoln Electric Company Bill Christy, Alcan International Limited JO Ann Clarke, Alcan International Limited Peter Pollak, The Aluminum Association (Secretary) Don Rager, Consultant, Reynolds Metals
3、(Retired) Donald J. Spinella, Alcoa Kyle Williams, Alcoa The committee would like to express its gratitude to the original author of the text, H.L. Saunders. Use of the Information Any data and suggestions contained in this publication were compiled and/or developed by The Aluminum Association, Inc.
4、 In view of the variety of conditions and methods of use to which such data and suggestions may be applied, The Aluminum Association and its member companies assume no responsibility or liability for the use of information contained herein. Neither The Aluminum Association nor any of its member comp
5、anies gives any warranties, express or implied, with respect to this information. Fourth Edition 2002 ISBN 1-55925-000-3 Copyright O 2002 The Aluminum Association, Inc. WELDING ALUMINUM Table of Contents Chapter 1: Chapter 2: Chapter 3: Introduction to Aluminum Welding General 1.1 Welded Aluminum Ap
6、plications . 1.1 Aluminums Properties . 1.1 Chemical Properties 1.1 Physical Properties 1.2 Mechanical Properties . 1.2 Forms of Aluminum 1.3 Allow and Temper Designation Systems General 2.1 Alloying Elements 2.1 Wrought Allow Designations . 2.1 Cast Alloy Designations . 2.1 Temper Designations 2.2
7、“F” fabricated . 2.2 “O annealed 2.2 “H” strain hardened . 2.2 “W solution heat-treated . 2.2 “T” thermally treated to produce stable tempers other than F, O, or H 2.2 Aluminum Alloy Properties 2.3 Welding Metallurgy General 3.1 Major Differences Between Aluminum and Steel 3.1 Alloying Aluminum . 3.
8、1 Wrought Alloys . 3.3 Nonheat-Treatable Alloys 3.3 lxxx Series Alloys 3.3 3xxx Series Alloys 3.4 4xxx Series Alloys 3.4 5xxx Series Alloys 3.4 Heat-Treatable Alloys 3.4 2xxx Series Alloys 3.4 6xxx Series Alloys 3.4 7xxx Series Alloys 3.5 8xxx Series Alloys 3.5 Weld Cracking . 3.6 Common Filler Allo
9、ys . 3.7 Cast Alloys . 3.5 Filler Alloy Selection 3.7 Alloys 5356, 5183 and 5556 3.7 Alloy 5554 3.8 WELDING ALUMINUM Alloy 5654 . 3.8 Alloys 4043. 4643. 4047 and 41 45 . 3.8 Alloy 231 9 . 3.10 Alloys 11 O0 and 11 88 . 3.10 Alloys C355.0, A356.0, 357.0 and A357.0 3.10 Special Cases . 3.10 Metallurgic
10、al Effects of Welding . 3.10 Weld Bead 3.11 Weld Heat-Aff ected Zones . 3.11 Nonheat-Treatable Alloys . 3.11 Heat-Treatable Alloys . 3.11 Welding Annealed Heat-Treatable Base Alloys 3.15 Postweld Heat-Treatment . 3.15 Thermal Stress Relief . 3.16 Precautions When Welding Some High Performance Alumin
11、um Alloys 3.17 Chapter 4: Metal Preparation for Welding Metalworking Methods . 4.1 Arc Cutting. Beveling and Gouging 4.1 Laser Cutting 4.4 General . 4.1 Storage and Handling of Aluminum 4.1 Air Carbon Arc Cutting. Beveling and Gouging 4.1 Plasma Arc Cutting. Beveling and Gouging . 4.2 Mechanical Cut
12、ting. Beveling and Gouging 4.4 Sawing 4.4 Grinding 4.5 Gouging 4.5 Other Methods 4.6 Cleaning Techniques 4.6 Solvents 4.7 Deoxidizers . 4.7 Wire Brushing . 4.7 Chapter 5: Additional Operations Moisture Removal 5.1 Preheating 5.1 Interpass Operations 5.1 Weld Backing . 5.2 Fixturing 5.2 Tack Welding
13、5.2 Smut Removal 5.3 Repairing Welds . 5.3 Distortion Control 5.4 Table of Contents Chapter 6: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding General . 6.1 AC-GTAW . 6.2 Equipment 6.2 Power Sources . 6.2 Tungsten Electrodes . 6.3 Filler Metal 6.5 Welding Procedure . 6.7 Pipe Welding 6.13 Automatic Welding 6.13 DC-GTAW .
14、6.14 Equipment 6.14 Shielding Gas . 6.14 Welding Torches . 6.15 Tungsten Electrodes . 6.15 Filler Metal 6.15 Manual Welding Techniques 6.16 Shielding Gas . 6.3 Welding Torches . 6.3 Cooling Systems . 6.4 Manual Welding Technique 6.5 Joint Geometry . 6.7 Power Sources . 6.14 Cooling Systems . 6.15 Au
15、tomatic Welding 6.18 Chapter 7: Gas Metal Arc Welding General . 7.1 The GMAW Process . 7.1 Equipment 7.2 Power Sources . 7.2 Pulsed GMAW 7.4 Arc Stability . 7.5 Joint Geometry . 7.5 Pool Dynamics 7.5 Electrode Feeder and Gun . 7.6 Arc Initiation 7.7 Guns . 7.7 Contact Tips 7.8 Shielding Gas . 7.8 Co
16、oling Systems . 7.9 Electrode Wire 7.9 Semiautomatic Welding 7.9 Joint Geometry . 7.12 Welding Procedure . 7.13 Setting a Procedure 7.15 Initiating the Arc 7.16 Stopping the Arc . 7.17 Welding . 7.17 WELDING ALUMINUM Automatic Welding . 7.18 Equipment 7.18 Power Sources . 7.19 Electrode Feeder and G
17、un . 7.19 Shielding Gas . 7.20 Robotic Welding . 7.20 Orbital Pipe Welding . 7.21 GMA Spot Welding . 7.21 Chapter 8: Chapter 9: Chapter IO: Chapter 71: Electron Beam Welding General . 8.1 Fundamentals of Creating an Electron Beam 8.1 Welding Process Variations . 8.2 Characteristics of the Process 8.
18、1 Laser Beam Welding General . 9.1 Fundamentals of Creating a Laser Beam . 9.1 Characteristics of the Process 9.1 CO, Laser . 9.2 Nd:YAG Laser . 9.2 Direct Diode 9.3 Hybrid Techniques . 9.4 Other Welding Processes General . 10.1 Arc Stud Welding 10.1 Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding 10.1 Stud Weld Q
19、uality Control 10.2 Plasma Arc Welding . 10.3 Basic Process . 10.3 Variable Polarity Plasma Welding 10.3 Plasma GMAW . 10.4 Arc Spot Welding 10.4 Shielded Metal Arc Welding . 10.5 Oxy-fuel Gas Welding 10.7 Electrogas Welding 10.8 Electroslag Welding 10.8 Thermit Welding . 10.9 Stud Welding 10.1 Weld
20、 Performance General . 11.1 Tensile Strength and Ductility . 11 . 1 Nonheat-Treatable Alloys . 11 . 1 Heat-Treatable Alloys . 11.2 Design Properties . 11.3 Postweld Heat Treatment . 11.4 Shear Strength . 11.6 Table of Contents Impact Strength 11 . 6 Fatigue Strength . 11.8 Fracture Characteristics .
21、 11 . 9 Temperature Effect on Properties 11.8 Corrosion Resistance . 11.1 0 Chapter 12: Control of Weld Qualify General . 12.1 Testing Methods . 12.1 Nondestructive Testing . 12.1 Visual Inspection 12.1 Dye Penetrant Inspection . 12.1 Radiographic Inspection . 12.1 Ultrasonic Inspection 12.2 Destruc
22、tive Testing . 12.2 Bend Test . 12.2 Tensile Test 12.3 Metallurgical Examination . 12.4 Fracture Test 12.3 Hardness Test 12.4 Weld Defects 12.4 Cracks 12.4 Longitudinal Cracks 12.4 Transverse Cracks . 12.5 Crater Cracks . 12.5 Internal Cracks 12.5 Inadequate Penetration . 12.5 Incomplete Fusion 12.6
23、 Porosity . 12.6 Inclusions 12.7 Undercut . 12.7 Overlap . 12.7 Incorrect Weld Size or Shape . 12.7 Unsatisfactory Weld Appearance . 12.9 Chapter 13: Design for Welding General . 13.1 Aluminum Properties 13.1 Weight 13.1 Thermal Conductivity and Expansion . 13.1 Modulus of Elasticity . 13.1 Weld Str
24、engths . 13.1 Welding Factors Affecting Design 13.1 Accessibility 13.1 Welding Speed . 13.1 Arc Force 13.1 Arc Starting and Termination 13.2 Edge Preparation 13.2 Joint Fit-Up . 13.2 WELDING ALUMINUM Chapter 14: Back Gouging . 13.2 Joint Design 13.2 The Butt Joint . 13.2 The Lap Joint 13.2 The Tee J
25、oint 13.3 The Corner Joint . 13.3 The Edge Joint . 13.3 Weld Types . 13.3 Groove Welds . 13.3 Fillet Welds . 13.5 Plug and Slot Welds . 13.7 Miscellaneous Considerations 13.7 Compensating for Strength Loss at Welds . 13.7 Doubler Plates 13.8 Combined Lap and Butt Joints . 13.9 Controlling Weld Disto
26、rtion . 13.1 0 Extruded Shapes 13.1 1 Panel Stiff eners 13.12 Corner Construction . 13.1 2 Intersecting Welds 13.1 3 GMA Spot Welds 13.1 3 Brackets and Gussets 13.1 3 Butt Joints between Unequal Thicknesses . 13.1 5 Skewed Tee Joints . 13.1 5 Bulkhead to Shell Joints . 13.1 5 Partial Penetration Gro
27、ove Welds 13.1 6 Welds Combined with Mechanical Fasteners 13.1 6 Designing for Cyclic Loading 13.1 6 Welding Costs 13.1 7 Resistance Welding General . 14.1 Resistance Spot Welding . 14.1 Alloys and Tempers 14.2 Thicknesses 14.2 Part Fit-up and Weld Spacing 14.2 Weld Schedules 14.3 Electrodes . 14.3
28、Base Metal Cleaning 14.7 Welding Machines 14.8 Discontinuities and Causes 14.8 Tip Pickup . 14.8 Cracks . 14.8 Porosity . 14.8 Excessive sheet indentation . 14.8 Expulsion 14.8 Penetration . 14.9 Weldbonding 14.9 Weld Size and Strength 14.6 Table of Contents Projection Welding . 14.9 Roll Spot Weldi
29、ng . 14.9 Upset Welding 14.1 0 Flash Welding . 14.1 1 Current Supplied by Induction 14.1 3 Current Supplied through Contacts 14.1 3 High-Frequency Resistance Welding . 14.1 2 Chapter 15: Sod State Welding General . 15.1 Explosion Welding 15.1 Ultrasonic Welding . 15.2 Diffusion Welding 15.3 Pressure
30、 Welding . 15.4 Friction Welding 15.6 Cold Welding 15.4 Hot Pressure Welding . 15.6 Friction Stir Welding . 15.7 Chapter 76: Related Joining Processes General . 16.1 Brazing . 16.1 Brazeability . 16.1 Filler Metals 16.2 Fluxes . 16.2 Chloride Fluxes . 16.2 Fluoride Fluxes . 16.3 Torch Brazing . 16.3
31、 Furnace Brazing . 16.3 Induction Brazing 16.3 Dip Brazing . 16.5 Vacuum Brazing . 16.5 Joint Designs 16.5 Fixtures . 16.5 Metal Preparation . 16.6 Corrosion Resistance . 16.6 Removal of Chloride Fluxes . 16.6 Soldering 16.7 Solders . 16.7 Fluxes . 16.8 Soldering with an Iron . 16.10 Torch Soldering
32、 16.1 0 Abrasion Soldering . 16.1 0 Ultrasonic Soldering . 16.1 0 Furnace Soldering . 16.1 1 Dip Soldering 16.11 Resistance Soldering 16.1 1 Joint Strengths 16.1 2 Solderability 16.7 WELDING ALUMINUM Corrosion Resistance . 16.1 2 Adhesive Bonding 16.1 2 Mechanical Fastening 16.1 2 Chapter 7 7: Joini
33、ng Aluminum to Other Metals General . 17.1 Bimetallic Transition Inserts . 17.1 Fusion Welding with Coatings 17.1 Explosion welding . 17.2 Ultrasonic welding 17.2 Diffusion welding 17.2 Cotd welding . 17.2 Hot pressure welding 17.2 Friction welding . 17.2 Flash welding 17.2 Brazing . 17.2 Soldering
34、17.2 Gas metal arc spot welding 17.3 Solid State Welding 17.1 Other Techniques . 17.2 Thermit welding 17.3 Corrosion Resistance of Bimetallic Joints 17.3 Chapter 18: Health and Safety Considerations General . 18.1 Hot Metal Burns 18.1 Electric Shock . 18.1 Radiated Light 18.1 Noise 18.3 Fume Emissio
35、ns . 18.3 Smoke 18.4 Gases . 18.4 Fluxes . 18.4 Cleaning Liquids and Deoxidizers 18.4 Explosion 18.5 Chapter 79: Codes and Standards for Aluminum Welding General . 19.1 Sources 19.1 Applications 19.1 Conclusion 19.2 Chapter 20: Additional Information Sources Chapter 1 20.1 Chapter 2 . .2 0.1 Chapter
36、 3 20.1 Chapter 4 20.1 Chapter 6 20.1 Chapter 5 20.1 Table of Contents Chapter 7 20.1 Chapter 8 20.1 Chapter 9 20.2 Chapter 1 O 20.2 Chapter 11 20.2 Chapter 12 20.2 Chapter 13 20.2 Chapter 14 20.2 Chapter 15 20.2 Chapter 16 20.2 Chapter 17 20.3 Chapter 18 20.3 Chapter 19 20.3 Index WELDING ALUMINUM
37、List of Figures Figure # 1.1 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.3-M 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.6-M 7.1 Hydrogen Solubility in Pure Aluminum Aluminum FCC Crystal Effect of Cold Work on Yield Strength of Several Work-Hardening Alloys Isotherma
38、l Annealing Curves for 5052 that Had Been Cold Worked 80% Relative Crack Sensitivity versus Weld Composition for Various Binary Aluminum Systems Nonheat-Treatable Weld (5083 Alloy with 5356 Filler) Hardness Profiles Across GTA Welds In Aluminum Alloys Microstructural Zones in Welds in Hardness Profi
39、les in 6061-T6 GTA Welds with Various Heat Inputs Typical Hot Cracking in a Welded Liquation Cracking Behind a Weld in an Micro-Cracking in Plasma Arc Cut Edge in Aluminum Laser Cutting Cutting Aluminum Extrusion with Circular Saw Tooth Spacing of Blades Some Typical Discs Rotary Cutter Gouging Mach
40、ine for Aluminum Chisel Shape for Pneumatic Gouging of Aluminum Planing Edge of Plate Beveling with a Jointer Back Gouging Recommended Groove Shapes GMA Weld with Smut Weld Smut Composition Relationship of Welds to Neutral Axes to Minimize Distortion Schematic Diagrams of the GTAW Process GTAW Proce
41、ss with Added Filler Typical Joint Geometries for AC-GTAW of Welding Aluminum Typical Joint Geometries for AC-GTAW of Welding Aluminum Extended-Land Bevel Advantages of Extended-Land Bevel Typical Joint Geometries for DCEN-GTAW of Aluminum Typical Joint Geometries for DCEN-GTAW of Aluminum Schematic
42、 Diagram of the Semiautomatic GMAW Process 6061-T6 Alloy Al-Mg-Si Alloy AI-Mg-Si Alloy Page # 1.2 3.2 3.3 3.3 3.6 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.15 3.16 4.3 4.4 4.4 4.5 4.5 4.6 4.6 4.6 4.7 5.2 5.3 5.3 5.4 6.1 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.13 6.14 6.15 6.15 7.1 Figure # 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 7.8 7.8-M 7.9 7.10 7.1 1 7.12 8
43、.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 9.8 10.1 11.1 11.2 11.3 11.4 11.5 Current-Voltage Characteristic of a Drooper Power Source Current-Voltage Characteristic of a Constant Voltage Power Source Voltage and Current Traces for Pulsed GMAW Longitudinal sections through high current welds made wit
44、h CC and CV power supplies GMAW Electrode Wire Feeder Systems Effect of Argon and Helium Shielding Gases on Weld Fusion Shape Typical GMAW Joint Geometries for Semiautomatic Welding of Aluminum Typical GMAWJoint Geometries for Semiautomatic Welding of Aluminum Semiautomatic GMAW Process Cross-Sectio
45、ns of Weld Stops Schematic Diagram of the Automatic GMAW Process Beveled Nozzle for Automatic GMAW with Helium Shielding Gas Schematic of the Electron Beam Welding Process Aluminum Piston Welded with Pulsed Comparison of High-Vacuum and Partiallnon-vacuum Electron Beam Processes Flange Weld of 2.5mm
46、 AA5754 Structural Beam Box Schematic of Laser Beam Welding Schematic of a CO, Laser CO, Laser Schematic of a Nd:YAG Laser Nd:YAG Laser Beam Configurations for Laser Welding of Aluminum Alloys Robot-mounted Direct Diode Laser Plasma-augmented CO, Laser Welding with Wire Feed Two-pass, Vertical Posit
47、ion Variable Polarity Plasma Arc Weld in 1/2-inch (12.7 mm) Thick 2519-T87 Intergranular Cracking in a 2014-T6 Forging HAZ Typical Shear Strengths of Longitudinal Fillet Welds Typical Shear Strengths of Transverse Fillet Welds Fatigue Strengths of GMAW Butt Joints Relative Toughness and Tear Resista
48、nce Ratings of Aluminum Alloy Weldments EBW-HV Page # 7.3 7.3 7.4 7.6 7.6 7.8 7.10 7.1 1 7.15 7.18 7.19 7.20 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.3 9.1 9.1 9.2 9.2 9.3 9.3 9.4 9.4 10.4 11.4 11.7 11.7 11.8 11.10 WELDING ALUMINUM Figure # Page # Figure # Page # 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 12.5 12.6 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.
49、7 13.8 13.9 13.10 13.11 13.12 13.13 13.14 13.15 13.16 13.17 Mechanism for Wrap-Around Bend Test Cracking in Groove Weld When Reverse Side Bead Overpenetrates Face Side Bead Heat Affected Zone Cracking Cracking at Weld/Base Metal Interface (6013-T6 GTA Welded with 5356 Filler) Worm-Hole Porosity Acceptable and Unacceptable Weld Profiles Typical Groove Weld Geometries Typical Joint Geometry for Tube to Tube-Sheet Weld Extended-Land Bevel for Welding Aluminum Pipe Reinforcement Shape on Fatigue Strength of Groove Welds Shape of Fillet Welds Concave, Convex and Unequal Leg Fillet Welds Cost Ad
