1、GEOP Gas Engineering and Operating Practices A Series by the Operating Section The American Gas Association Volume I SUPPLY Book S1 Underground Storage The American Gas Association Arlington, Virginia Legal Notice The Gas Engineering and Operating Practices Series was prepared by the American Gas As
2、sociation (A.G.A.), its member companies and other individuals and groups with an interest in the natural gas industry Neither A.G.A., its member companies, employees, nor any person acting on their behalf: a. Makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, co
3、mpleteness, or usefulness of the information contained in this series, or that the use of any apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this series may not infringe privately owned rights; or b. Assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages or personal injuries resulting from the
4、 use of any information, apparatus, method, or process disclosed in this series, or for violation of any federal, state or municipal regulation with which it may conflict. c. Reference to trade names or specific commercial products, methods, commodities or services in this series does not represent
5、or constitute an endorsement, recommendation or favoring by A.G.A. or any other person of the specific commercial product, commodity or service. d. Nothing contained in this series is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, for the manufacture, sale, or use in connection
6、with any method, apparatus, or product covered by letters patent, nor as insuring anyone against liability for infringement of letters patent. Copyright 1990 by the American Gas Association, A.G.A. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 85-70460 ISBN 0-87257-006-1 A.G.A. Catal
7、og Number XY9008 1M12.90-138-69 Printed in the United States of America CONTENTS FIGURES AND TABLES . ix PREFACE xiii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . xv ENGLISH/METRIC CONVERSION FACTORS xxiii PART 1. Underground Storage of Natural Gas CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . 3 Purpose of Underground Storage 3 History of Stora
8、ge in the United States . 4 Types of Storage . 4 Aquifers 5 Leached Caverns 6 Mined Caverns . 7 Depleted Reservoirs . 8 CHAPTER 2. DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION, AND MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONS 9 Preliminary Planning 9 Determining Storage Needs 10 Deliverability 10 Volume 10 Alternatives to Storage
9、 11 iii iv UNDERGROUND STORAGE Site Selection . 11 Proximity to Market . 11 Proximity to Pipeline . 11 Availability of Suitable Formations 11 Geology . 12 Land and Right-of-Way 12 Regulatory Requirements . 13 Reservoir Engineering 13 Reservoir System . 15 Gas Inventory 18 Definition . 19 Inventory M
10、onitoring 19 Determination . 19 Verification and Quantification of Losses 20 Deliverability . 20 Well Deliverability 20 Field Deliverability . 23 Facilities 23 Subsurface Facilities . 23 Well Design 23 Drilling 28 Coring, Logging, and Testing . 30 Completion . 32 Safety Devices . 33 Surface Faciliti
11、es . 34 Pressure Regulation . 34 Measurement 34 Compressor Stations 35 Field Piping System . 35 Gas Conditioning Plant 35 Operations . 35 Injection 36 Withdrawal . 36 Recycle 36 Shut-Ins 36 Testing 36 Wireline 37 Well Maintenance 37 References . 37 PART 2. CASE STUDIES CHAPTER 1. AQUIFERS 41 CONTENT
12、S v Introduction 41 Preliminary Planning 42 Site Selection . 42 Geology 43 Regulatory Requirements . 46 Reservoir Engineering . 46 Reservoir System . 48 Gas Inventory 50 Definition . 53 Development 54 Verification and Quantification of Losses 54 Well Design 55 Coring, Logging, and Testing 56 Complet
13、ion . 56 Testing . 57 Well Maintenance 60 CHAPTER 2. LEACHED CAVERNS . 61 Introduction . 61 Geology . 61 Land and Right-of-Way . 62 Regulatory Requirements . 62 Reservoir System . 63 Gas Inventory 63 Deliverability . 65 Drilling . 67 Field Testing . 69 Cavern Construction . 69 Single-Well Caverns 69
14、 Leaching Process . 69 Circulation Methods 71 Blanket 71 Sump . 71 Brine Disposal System . 71 Surface Facilities . 72 Cavern Conversion and Operations 73 Shut-Ins . 76 Testing . 76 References 76 CHAPTER 3. MINED CAVERNS 77 Introduction 77 Geology 77 Formattedvi UNDERGROUND STORAGE Land and Right-of-
15、Way . 80 Regulatory Requirements . 81 Reservoir System . 81 Gas Inventory 82 Deliverability . 82 Shaft Sealing, Drilling, Coring, and Testing . 83 Safety Devices . 87 Pressure Regulation 88 Measurement . 88 Compressor Station . 88 Field Piping System 92 Gas Conditioning Plant . 92 Injection . 92 Wit
16、hdrawal 93 Recycling 93 Shut-Ins . 93 Testing . 94 Wirelines 95 Well Maintenance . 95 References 95 CHAPTER 4. DEPLETED CONDENSATE RESERVOIRS 97 Introduction . 97 Preliminary Planning . 97 Geology . 98 Land and Right-of-Way . 101 Regulatory Requirements . 103 Reservoir System . 104 Gas Inventory 106
17、 Deliverability . 108 Well Design 108 Drilling 109 Coring and Logging . 109 Completion . 110 Safety Devices . 112 Well Testing . 112 Surface Facilities . 112 Operations . 114 Injection . 114 Withdrawal . 114 Testing . 115 Well Maintenance . 115 CONTENTS vii CHAPTER 5. DEPLETED HIGH-PERMEABILITY GAS
18、RESERVOIRS . 117 Introduction 117 Regulatory Requirements 119 Land and Right-of-Way 119 Geological and Engineering Data 123 Reconditioning of Old Wells 126 Drilling New Wells and Defining Field Limits 129 Wellhead Structures and Annuli . 132 Reservoir Performance and Delivery Capacity 133 Stimulatio
19、n 135 Gathering System 135 Compression 136 Dehydration Plant . 138 Operation and Maintenance . 138 CHAPTER 6. DEPLETED LOW-PERMEABILITY GAS RESERVOIR . 141 Introduction . 141 Geology . 141 Land and Right-of-Way . 142 Regulatory Requirements . 144 Gas Inventory 144 Deliverability . 145 Well Design an
20、d Completions . 155 Casing Equipment and Cementing Materials . 156 Logging Program . 161 Perforating . 161 Stimulation 162 Surface Facilities . 162 Operations . 163 Pressure Tests . 163 Well Maintenance 164 CHAPTER 7. DEPLETED HIGH-PERMEABILITY OIL RESERVOIR 165 Introduction 165 Preliminary Planning
21、 . 165 Geology 167 Structure . 169 Stratigraphy 172 viii UNDERGROUND STORAGE Storage Zones 172 Seshon Zone . 173 Frew Zone 174 Land and Right-of-Way . 174 Regulatory Requirements . 175 Reservoir Engineering 177 Reservoir System . 177 Gas Inventory 184 Deliverability . 193 Subsurface Facilities . 193
22、 Reconditioned Wells 198 New Well Design . 200 Drilling . 202 Coring and Logging . 203 Completion . 204 Safety Devices . 204 Well Maintenance . 207 Surface Facilities . 208 Compressor Facilities 210 Field Separators 210 Dehydration Plants . 211 Gas Preparation 211 Gas Drying . 211 Gas Metering and P
23、ressure Regulation 211 Liquid Gathering Plants . 212 Hydrocarbon Recovery Unit . 212 Emergency Shutdown System 213 Operations . 213 Injection . 214 Withdrawal 214 Recycling and Oil Production . 215 Inventory Verification . 215 Testing for Sand and Deliverability . 216 Wireline Pressure and Temperatu
24、re Surveys . 217 APPENDIX A. CODES AND STANDARDS . 223 GLOSSARY 225 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 235 INDEX 243 List of Tables and Figures FIGURES 1. Examples of lithologic and faulted traps . 15 2. Example of a salt dome intrusion with associated oil traps . 16 3. Example of basement rock . 16 4. Sample log-log g
25、raph of a deliverability test AOF=99 MMcf/d . 22 5. Sample log-log graph of a deliverability test AOF=16.1 MMcF/d . 24 6. Sample log-log graph of a deliverability test AOF=85MMcf/d . 25 7. Compressibility of pure water 42 8. Structure contour map of Herscher storage field 44 9. Pump configuration te
26、st . 46 10. Schematic of a gas bubble in Galesville sandstone at Herscher storage field 48 11. Effective reservoir-rock compressibilities 49 12. Schematic showing types of wells used in storage fields 57 13. Formation of a gas bubble in an aquifer . 59 14. Survey 1 and 2 data 64 15. Typical delivera
27、bility curve for a solution-mined gas covenant 66 16. Construction of a typical single-well cavern in a salt dome . 70 17. Comparison of operating techniques for dry and wet caverns . 75 ix x UNDERGROUND STORAGE 18. Cross section of A and B coal seams and mined shafts of the Leyden Mine 79 19. Detai
28、l of the Leyden Mine No 3 hoisting shaft . 86 20. Detail of the Leyden Mine common ventilator shaft 86 21. Recycling of gas through Leyden . 94 22. Idealized strategraphic section of Rapid River 35 gas field . 99 23. Final structure map of Rapid River 35 gas storage field . 100 24. Property ownershi
29、p and storage acquisition map for Rapid River 35 storage field . 102 25. Typical storage wellbore configuration of Rapid River 35 field, Kalkaska County, Michigan . 111 26. Production decline curve of the Bistineau gas storage files 124 27. Structure map of Bistineau gas storage field . 125 28. Reme
30、dial work in the Pettet Formation of Bistineau gas storage field 127 29. Construction of new wells in Bistineau gas storage field 130 30. Map of Bistineau gas storage fields . 131 31. Isometric drawing of major gas piping at Bistineau storage . 137 32. A geological structure map 143 33. Wharton deli
31、verability curvesmain pool area 146 34. Wharton deliverability curvesFirst Fork area 147 35. Wharton deliverability curvesEast Fork area 148 36. Wharton deliverability areas . 149 37. Wharton deliverability curvesArea 1 150 38. Wharton deliverability curvesArea 2 151 39. Wharton deliverability curve
32、sArea 3 152 40. Wharton deliverability curvesArea 4 153 41. Wharton deliverability curvestotal field . 154 42. Plugged and abandoned well recompleted for storage 157 43. Existing cased production well recompleted for storage 158 44. Existing open-hole production well recompleted for storage 159 45.
33、New wells drilled for storage . 160 46. Major pipelines and underground storage fields in the Pacific Lighting Utility System, Southern California 166 47. Location of Aliso Canyon area in relation to major onshore basins and faults 168 48. Contour map of Aliso Canyon oil field . 170 FIGURES xi 49. C
34、ross-section map of Aliso Canyon oil field . 171 50. General geologic column of Aliso Canyon storage field . 173 51. Land boundaries of Aliso Canyon field . 176 52. Plot of oil formation volume factor Bo and Rs ratio versus pressure, Aliso Canyon 182 53. Plot of gas formation volume and compressibil
35、ity factors versus pressure, Aliso Canyon 183 54. Oil and gas production history of Aliso Canyon field 191 55. Annual oil production versus cumulative oil production for Aliso Canyon field 192 56. Plot of bottom-hole pressure versus gas inventory for Aliso Canyon storage field . 194 57. Typical back
36、-pressure curve for Aliso Canyon oil storage fields 197 58. Reconditioned Sesnon and Frew Zone storage well . 199 59. New storage well . 201 60. Typical storage well surface equipment at Aliso Canyon storage field 205 61. Typical wellhead piping at Aliso Canyon storage field 206 62. General flow dia
37、gram of surface facilities at Aliso Canyon field . 209 63. Schematic diagram of recycling and oil production operations of Aliso Canyon field . 216 64. Temperature survey plot for a typical storage well at Aliso Canyon field . 218 65. Pressure survey plot for a typical storage well at Aliso Canyon f
38、ield . 219 TABLES 1. Production and Reserves Data for Rapid River 35 Field . 105 2. Gas Inventory Data for Rapid River 35 Field 107 3. Data Summary for Bistineau Storage Field . 118 4. Summary of FPC Filings for Bistineau Storage Field . 120 5. Summary of Gas Storage Utilization for Bistineau Gas St
39、orage Field . 134 6. Contribution of Laterals to Field Gathering System . 136 7. Summary of Reservoir Characteristics of the Sesnon and Frew Zones of Aliso Canyon Oil Field (English Units) 178 7A. Summary of Reservoir Characteristics of the Sesnon and Frew Zones of Aliso Canyon Oil Field (Metric Uni
40、ts) 180 xii UNDERGROUND STORAGE 8. Estimated Initial Oil and Gas in Place in Sesnon and Frew Zones of Aliso Canyon Field (English Units) 185 8A. Estimated Initial Oil and Gas in Place in Sesnon and Frew Zones of Aliso Canyon Field (Metric Units) . 186 9. Estimated Gas in Place in Sesnon and Frew Zon
41、es of the Aliso Canyon Field as of January 1,1971 (English Units) . 187 9A. Estimated Gas in Place in Sesnon and Frew Zones of the Aliso Canyon Field as of January 1,1971 (Metric Units) . 189 10. Summary of Reservoir Pressures, P/Z, and Working Gas Inventory Since Start of Storage (English Units) 19
42、5 10A. Summary of Reservoir Pressures, P/Z, and Working Gas Inventory Since Start of Storage (Metric Units) 196 PREFACE Arlington, Virginia December, 1990 Underground Storage is the seventh of 11 books that will constitute the six-volume Gas Engineering and Operating Practices (GEOP) series of texts
43、 addressing the various technical aspects of gas supply, transmis-sion, distribution, measurement, utilization and related technical ser-vices subjects. The other book in the Supply Volume, Supplemental GasesPeak Shaving/Base Load, treated one major method of providing adequate gas supply during per
44、iods of peak demand. Where it is available, under-ground storage of natural gas near gas markets, has long been the preferred method of supplying the extra gas needed to meet peak gas demand because of its sheer volume and its economic and technical ad-vantages over supplemental gases and other form
45、s of storage. In 1989, 395 storage pools in 27 states offered an estimated storage capacity of 7.737 trillion cubic feet. This compares to 303 pools in 24 states with estimated capacity of 4.412 trillion cubic feet in 1966. In recent years, peak-day sendout from underground storage has exceeded the
46、amount provided by flowing pipeline gas. Part I of this book offers a general overview of procedures. Part II provides seven specific examples of how general procedures were adapted for storage in different types of reservoirs. The GEOP texts represent the writing efforts of hundreds of ex-pert auth
47、ors from more than 20 A.G.A. Operating Section committees composed of industry consultants, suppliers, and other specialists, in addition to leading pipeline and utility engineers. In the case of Under-ground Storage, the authors wish to acknowledge their indebtedness to the late Prof. Donald L. Kat
48、z of the University of Michigan, some of whose many works on the subject are listed in the bibliographic cita-tions at the end of this book. Readers owe a special debt of gratitude to Anne C. Roess, Librarian, The Peoples Gas Light and Coke Company of Chicago, and her xiii xiv UNDERGROUND STORAGE colleagues on the indexing subcommittee of the A.G.A. Library Services Committee, who verified references and indexed the book. We trust that this and the other books in
