1、GEOP Gas Engineering and Operating Practices A Series by the Operating Section The American Gas Association Volume II TRANSMISSION Book T-1 Pipelines/Planning and Economics The American Gas Association Arlington, Virginia Legal Notice The Gas Engineering and Operating Practices Series was prepared b
2、y the American Gas Association (A.G.A.), its member companies and other individuals and groups with an interest in the natural gas industry. Neither A.G.A., its member companies, employees, nor any person acting on their behalf: a. Makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respe
3、ct to the accuracy, completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this series, or that the use of any apparatus method, or process disclosed in this series may not infringe privately owned rights; or b. Assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages or personal injuri
4、es resulting from the use of any information, apparatus method, or process disclosed in this series, or for violation of any federal, state or municipal regulation with which it may conflict. c. Reference to trade names or specific commercial products, methods, commodities or services in this series
5、 does not represent or constitute an endorsement, recommendation or favoring by A.G.A. or any other person of the specific commercial product, commodity or service. d. Nothing contained in this series is to be construed as granting any right, by implication or otherwise, for the manufacture, sale, o
6、r use in connection with any method, apparatus, or product covered by letters patent, nor as insuring anyone against liability for infringement of letters patent. Copyright 1989 by the American Gas Association, A.G.A. All rights reserved. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 8570460 ISBN 0872570
7、045 A.G.A. Catalog Number XY8903 1M12.8915075 Printed in the United States of America CONTENTS FIGURES AND TABLES . xv PREFACE xix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xxiii PART 1. PIPELINES CHAPTER 1. LOCATION OF TRANSMISSION LINE 1 Scope . 1 History . 1 Project Justification . 3 Route Selection . 3 Obstacles to Pipe
8、line Construction . 4 Crossings 5 Corridor Concept 5 Air Quality Considerations . 5 New Methods of Route Selection 6 Archaeological Records . 6 Aerial Reconnaissance 7 Locating Pipelines Near Other Structures . 7 Developing Guidelines . 8 Public Relations . 8 Public Concerns 9 Acquisition of Easemen
9、ts 10 iii iv PIPELINES/PLANNING AND ECONOMICS Options 10 Compensation . 10 CHAPTER 2. DESIGN OF NATURAL GAS TRANSMISSION LINES . 11 Scope . 11 General Steady-Flow Equation 11 Reynolds Number 13 The Friction-Transmission Factor . 13 General Types of Equations in Use 16 Spitzglass Equation 16 Weymouth
10、 Equation . 17 Panhandle Equations . 17 Rhodes Equation . 18 A.G.A. Equations 18 Two-Phase Flow . 19 Slip/Liquid Holdup . 20 Two-Phase Flow Patterns 20 Design Procedure . 21 Friction Component 21 Elevation Component . 22 Acceleration Component 22 Use of Single-Phase Gas Flow Equations in Two-Phase F
11、low . 22 Multiphase Flow Models . 23 Dukler Correlation 23 Flannigans Correlation 28 Beggs and Brill Correlation 30 APPENDIX I. DERIVATION OF THE GENERAL STEADY-FLOW EQUATION . 34 CHAPTER 3. THE DESIGN OF PIPELINE FACILITIES 39 Scope . 39 Pipeline Drafting Symbols 39 General Provisions 48 Pipeline D
12、esign Factors 48 Temperature Derating 49 Longitudinal Joint Factors . 50 Sour Gas Facilities 50 Type of Pipe for Sour Gas Service 50 Inhibitors . 50 Calculations . 51 CONTENTS V Extrusions 51 Extrusion Calculation Nomenclature . 55 Branch Reinforcing 64 Pad Reinforced Branch Connection Calculation 6
13、4 Solution . 64 Roles for Weld reinforcing . 69 Concrete Coating Thickness and Weight Spacing 70 Negative Buoyancy 70 Concrete Set-On and Bolt-On Weights . 77 Natural Sags, Side Bends, and Overbends Minimum Bending Radius 82 Field BendsMinimum Bending Radius Calculations 85 Pipe Manufacturing Proces
14、s . 85 Seamless Line Pipe . 86 High-Frequency Electric Resistance Welded Line Pipe . 86 High-Frequency Electric-Resistance-Welded Line Pipe . 86 Submerged Arc-Welded Longitudinal and Spiral Seam Line Pipe 86 Standard Pipe Specifications . 91 Supplementary Pipe Specifications . 91 Pipe Coatings . 91
15、Pipeline Valves . 92 Ball Valves . 92 Gate Valves 93 Plug Valves . 93 Check Valves 94 Globe Valves . 94 Butterfly Valves . 94 Valve Operators 95 Manual Valve Operators . 95 Wrench Operators 95 Gear Operators . 95 Power Assisted Valve Operators . 95 Controls for Power Assisted Valve Operators 96 Main
16、 Line Valve Settings . 96 Blow Offs 96 Crossovers 98 Bypasses . 98 Liquid Removal Facilities . 99 Slug Catcher . 99 Line Drips 103 Scraper Traps . 104 Launching Traps 104 vi PIPELINES/PLANNING AND ECONOMICS Receiving Traps 106 On-Stream Pigging, Station Bypass . 107 Pipeline Fittings 107 Elbows . 10
17、8 Tees . 109 Extruded Header 109 Reducers . 110 Flanges 110 Crossings 112 Highway and Railroad Crossings 112 Slick-Bore Crossings 112 Open Cut Crossings . 114 Cased Crossings . 114 River and Stream Crossings 116 Submerged Crossings . 116 Bored Crossings 117 Aerial Crossings . 117 Bank Stabilization
18、. 117 Meter Stations 117 Pressure Limiting Stations 118 Regulator Stations 119 Branch Connections 119 Storage Facilities 120 Offshore Risers . 122 CHAPTER 4. PIPELINE REPAIR-ON SHORE . 127 Scope . 127 Operating Considerations . 127 Types of Damage 128 Gouge or Groove . 128 Dents 128 Laminations . 12
19、8 Hard Spots . 129 Arc Burn . 129 Wrinkle Bends . 129 Corrosion Pitting . 130 Cracks . 130 Weld Defects 131 Leaks 131 Methods of Repair 131 Prevention of Damage . 131 Prohibited Repair 132 Temporary Repair 132 CONTENTS vii Reduced Operating Pressure . 132 Bolt-On Split Sleeve . 132 Permanent Repair
20、. 133 Grinding 133 Cylindrical Cut-Outs . 134 Full Encirclement Welded Split Sleeve 135 Full Encirclement Bolt-On Split Sleeve 136 Collar Leak Clamp . 136 Bolt-On Leak Clamp 136 Welded Patch 137 Leak Repair Safety 137 Emergency Leak Repair Plan 137 Leak Classification . 137 Employee Safety . 138 Tes
21、ting of Repairs . 139 Air, Gas, or Liquid Test . 139 Nondestructive Testing of Welds . 139 Testing of Cylindrical Cut-Outs 140 Testing of Mechanical Repairs 140 CHAPTER 5. PIPELINE CONSTRUCTION 141 Scope . 141 Contracts 143 Firm Bid or Fixed Price . 143 Time-and-Material or Cost-Plus 143 Cost Plus F
22、ixed-Fee With Bonus/Penalty Provisions 144 Safety 144 Right-of-Way Safety . 145 Off Right-of-Way Safety . 146 Offshore Safety . 146 Barge Safety . 147 Survey Boat Safety . 147 Platform Safety 148 Surveys . 148 Route Selection . 148 Ground Surveys 150 Preliminary Onshore Survey 150 Preliminary Offsho
23、re Survey . 152 Horizontal Control 152 Vertical Control 153 Construction Survey . 153 As-Built Survey 154 viii PIPELINES/PLANNING AND ECONOMICS Construction Procedures . 155 Onshore Right of Way Clearing 155 Grading . 155 Stringing . 156 Ditching 157 Welding . 158 Weld Inspection 159 Field Coating 1
24、60 Lowering . 161 Tie-In . 162 Backfilling . 162 Cleaning 163 Hydrostatic Testing 163 Dewatering . 165 Sizing 165 Purging and Loading . 166 Clean-Up of Right of Way 166 Job Closure . 167 Crossings 167 Bored Crossings 167 Cased Crossings 168 Slick Bored (Noncased) Crossings . 168 Open Cut Crossings 1
25、68 River Crossings . 168 Canal (Waterway) Crossings 169 Inspection . 169 Company Personnel 169 Contracted Personnel . 170 Chief Inspector . 170 Tile Inspector . 172 Diving Inspector 173 Pipe and Line-Up Inspector 174 Welding Inspector 175 Coating and Lowering Inspector 179 Lowering and Tie-In Inspec
26、tor . 181 Utility Inspector . 182 River Croissing Inspector 184 Cleanup Inspector 184 Construction Engineer 185 Material Man . 186 Clerical Personnel 187 Office Manager . 188 Clerk/Stenographer . 188 CONTENTS ix CHAPTER 6 SOIL CONSERVATION AND SEDIMENT CONTROL 189 Scope . 189 Control Measures for Ov
27、erland Construction 190 Sediment Barriers 190 Bale Filters 190 Silt Fences . 190 Interceptor Dikes (Diversion Berms or Water Breakers) 191 Trench Plugs (Breakers) 193 Flexible Downdrains 193 Nonvegetative Soil Stabilization . 195 Stabilization With Mulch . 196 Mulching Materials . 196 Mulch Anchorin
28、g . 197 Peg and Twine 197 Mulch Netting and Matting . 197 Mechanical Anchoring 197 Liquid Mulch Binders 197 Temporary Seeding 199 Trench Dewatering . 199 Dust Control . 199 Water Sprinkling 199 Calcium Chloride Application 200 Mulch Application . 200 Other Techniques 200 Construction Time Frame 201
29、Access Points 201 Tree Protection . 201 Drainage Tile Protections .201 Water Crossings . 202 Siltation and Streambed Protection 203 Small Streams . 203 Large Streams and Rivers 203 Wetland Crossings 205 Winterizing . 207 Restoration of Disturbed Land . 207 Overland Construction . 208 Grassed Drainag
30、e Swalles 209 River Embankments . 209 The Erosion Control Plan 209 Sections of the Plan . 210 Introduction . 211 x PIPELINES/PLANNING AND ECONOMICS Construction Techniques 211 Temporary Erosion Control Measures 212 Restoration . 212 Sample Outline . 213 Sample Outline of Soil Plan . 213 APPENDIX I:
31、EROSION CONTROL GUIDELINES 215 Seeding . 216 Riprap Specification 216 CHAPTER 7. OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE OFFSHORE PIPELINES 229 Operations 229 Continuing Surveillance 229 Emergency Plans . 231 Tapping Pipelines Under Pressure (Hot Traps) 232 Purging . 233 Pigging 233 Emergency Materials 235 Opera
32、ting and Maintenance Plan 235 Maintenance 235 Pipeline Operating Records 236 Valve Maintenance 236 In-Situ Internal Coating . 237 Pipeline Reburial . 238 CHAPTER 8. OFFSHORE PIPELINE REPAIRS 239 Scope . 239 Types of Damage and Faults Requiring Repair 240 Appurtenance Damage or Malfunction 240 Corros
33、ion-Erosion 240 Mechanical Damage 241 Causes of Damage or Faults Requiring Repair . 241 Comparison With Onshore 241 Environmental Attack . 242 Natural Occurrences and Disasters . 242 Manmade Hazards 242 Other Causes 242 Methods of Repair . 242 Pipeline Above Water Level 243 Subsea Piping 243 Conside
34、rations in Selecting Repair Method 243 Offsite or Reinspection . 243 CONTENTS xi Onsite Inspection . 244 Other Considerations 245 Outside Services and Equipment . 245 Surface Support 245 Subsurface Support 245 Mechanical Connectors and Clamps . 246 Connector Characteristics 246 Connector Types Avail
35、able . 247 Connector Selection Considerations 248 Subsea Welding Repairs 249 Hyperbaric Welding 249 Wet Welding 249 Explosive Welding 250 Subsea Welding Considerations 250 Other Repair Considerations 250 Concrete and Dielectric Coating Removal 251 Testing of Repairs 251 Repair Records . 251 Preplann
36、ing 251 Design Preplanning 252 RUPE Organization . 252 CHAPTER 9. OPERATIONSONSHORE . 253 Scope . 253 Continuing Surveillance 253 Analysis of Surveillance . 253 Emergency Plans 254 Initial Notification 254 Communication . 254 Response 254 Follow-Up 255 Training of Employees 256 Liaison With Public O
37、fficials . 256 Public Education . 256 Purging of Pipelines 257 Internal Cleaning . 257 Emergency Stock Pipe 257 Class Location Determination . 259 Actions Required Because of Class Location Change 258 Operating and Maintenance Plan . 258 Necessary Information . 258 xii PIPELINES/PLANNING AND ECONOMI
38、CS CHAPTER 10.ON-SHORE MAINTENANCE . 261 Scope . 261 Continuing Surveillance . 262 Leakage Surveys 262 Pipeline Markers 262 Records . 263 Valve Maintenance 263 PART 2: PLANNING AND ECONOMICS CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO TRANSMISSION PLANNING AND ECONOMICS 267 General Overview and Definition of a Trans
39、mission System 267 Flow Increase Tradeoffs . 268 Pressure Vs. Distance Relationship in a Pipeline . 268 Consideration of Transient Flow . 271 CHAPTER 2. PIPE SELECTION . 277 Range of Pipe and Fitting Sizes . 277 Effect of Diameter Upon Pipeline Capacity . 277 Effect of Operating Pressure Upon Capaci
40、ty . 280 Determination of Pipe Wall Thickness To achieve Code Compliance 280 Pipeline Costs 282 Right-of-Way Costs 282 Material Costs . 283 Installation Costs 284 Engineering and Overhead Costs . 284 CHAPTER 3. COMPRESSOR SELECTION 285 Scope . 285 Types of Prime Movers and Compressors 285 Gass Turbi
41、ne Drivers . 285 Reciprocating Gas Engine Drivers 286 Electric Motor Drivers . 286 Combined Cycle Drivers 286 Reciprocating Compressors . 287 Centrifugal Compressors . 287 Compression Ratio . 287 Effect of Compression On Gas Temperature 289 CONTENTS xiii Temperature Cascade in a Pipeline 289 Afterco
42、oling . 289 Single- or Multiple-Unit Stations . 292 Security of Multi-Unit Stations . 292 Cost Considerations . 292 Mobile Compressors and Portable Boosters . 292 CHAPTER 4. PIPE VS. COMPRESSION ECONOMICS 295 Transmission Costs Versus Capital Costs . 295 Return . 295 Depreciation 295 Income Taxes 29
43、6 Other Taxes 296 Operating and Maintenance Expenses . 296 Fuel Costs . 296 Present Worth of Ownership and Operating Costs . 296 Sample Calculation of Ownership and Operating Costs . 297 Minimizing Transmission Cost for a New System . 297 Minimizing Transmission Cost for Expanding an Existing System
44、 . 302 Sensitivity of Economic Factors 302 CHAPTER 5. UNACCOUNTED FOR GAS 307 Scope . 307 General Overview 307 Factors Contributing to the Total UFG Quantity . 308 Measurement Error 308 Large-Volume High-Pressure Measurement Error 309 Low-Pressure Measurement Error 309 Ideal Gas Law . 314 Correction
45、 Factors Applicable to Low-Pressure Measurement 312 Measurement Error in Storage Operation 317 Company-Use Gas 317 Residential Meter Change 317 Line Purge Blow-Down . 318 Uses for Gas in Company Operations 319 Uncontrolled Losses . 320 Loss Caused by Leakage in Piping Systems . 320 Leakage Repair Pr
46、ograms 320 Loss Caused by Damage to Piping Systems . 321 Loss Caused by Diversion or Theft of Gas 321 Accounting Practices . 321 xiv PIPELINES/PLANNING AND ECONOMICS Accurate Definition of All Quantities Purchased and Delivered 321 Restatements and Adjustments to Gas Accounting Reports 322 Billing o
47、f Cycle Effect . 322 Methods of Defining and Minimizing UFG . 323 Prompt, Accurate Reporting . 323 Records and Review of Trends . 323 APPENDIX A, CODES AND STANDARDS . 327 APPENDIX B, GLOSSARY 339 REFERENCES 345 BIBLIOGRAPHY 347 INDEX . 351 FIGURES AND TABLES PART 1. PIPELINES FIGURES 1. Moody diagr
48、am . 15 2. Two-phase flow patterns . 21 3. Gas flow rates vs. pressure drops per foot length 23 4. Two-phase flow friction factors . 26 5. Liquid holdup correlation for horizontal pipe 27 6. Flannigans correlation for pressure drops 29 7. Commonly used drafting symbols for pipeline components 40 8. Inflatable unisphere pig for batching and displacement 52 9. Squeegee pig for batching and displacement . 53 10. Electronic caliper pig for internal pipeline inspection 54 11. Magnetic flux leakage (“smart“) pig being removed from receiving trap 54 12. Terms used
