1、Designation: D3649 06 (Reapproved 2014)Standard Practice forHigh-Resolution Gamma-Ray Spectrometry of Water1This standard is issued under the fixed designation D3649; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last
2、 revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This practice covers the measurement of gamma-rayemitting radionuclides in water by means of gamma-rayspectrometry. It is
3、applicable to nuclides emitting gamma-rayswith energies greater than 45 keV. For typical counting systemsand sample types, activity levels of about 40 Bq are easilymeasured and sensitivities as low as 0.4 Bq are found for manynuclides. Count rates in excess of 2000 counts per secondshould be avoided
4、 because of electronic limitations. Highcount rate samples can be accommodated by dilution, byincreasing the sample to detector distance, or by using digitalsignal processors.1.2 This practice can be used for either quantitative orrelative determinations. In relative counting work, the resultsmay be
5、 expressed by comparison with an initial concentrationof a given nuclide which is taken as 100 %. For quantitativemeasurements, the results may be expressed in terms of knownnuclidic standards for the radionuclides known to be present.This practice can also be used just for the identification ofgamm
6、a-ray emitting radionuclides in a sample without quan-tifying them. General information on radioactivity and themeasurement of radiation has been published (1,2).2Informa-tion on specific application of gamma spectrometry is alsoavailable in the literature (3-5). See also the referenced ASTMStandard
7、s in 2.1 and the related material section at the end ofthis standard.1.3 This standard does not purport to address the safetyconcerns, if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibilityof the user of this standard to establish appropriate safety andhealth practices and determine the applicabi
8、lity of regulatorylimitation prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:3D1066 Practice for Sampling SteamD1129 Terminology Relating to WaterD2777 Practice for Determination of Precision and Bias ofApplicable Test Methods of Committee D19 on WaterD3370 Practices for Sampling Water from C
9、losed ConduitsD3648 Practices for the Measurement of RadioactivityD4448 Guide for Sampling Ground-Water Monitoring WellsE181 Test Methods for Detector Calibration and Analysis ofRadionuclides3. Terminology3.1 DefinitionsFor definitions of terms used in thispractice, refer to Terminology D1129. For t
10、erms not defined inthis practice or in Terminology D1129, reference may be madeto other published glossaries.4. Summary of Practice4.1 Gamma ray spectra are measured with modular equip-ment consisting of a detector, high-voltage power supply,preamplifier, amplifier and analog-to-digital converter (o
11、r digi-tal signal processor), multichannel analyzer, as well as acomputer with display.4.2 High-purity germanium (HPGe) detectors, p-type orn-type, are used for the analysis of complex gamma-ray spectrabecause of their excellent energy resolution. These germaniumsystems, however, are characterized b
12、y high cost and requirecooling. Liquid nitrogen or electromechanical cooling, or both,can be used.4.3 In a germanium semiconductor detector, gamma-rayphotons produce electron-hole pairs. The charged pair is thencollected by an applied electric field. A very stable low noisepreamplifier is needed to
13、amplify the pulses of electric charge1This practice is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee D19 on Water andis the direct responsibility of Subcommittee D19.04 on Methods of RadiochemicalAnalysis.Current edition approved June 1, 2014. Published July 2014. Originally approvedin 1978. Last previou
14、s edition approved in 2006 as D3649 06. DOI: 10.1520/D3649-06R14.2The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to a list of references at the end ofthis standard.3For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of
15、ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United StatesThis international standard was developed in accordance with internationally recognized p
16、rinciples on standardization established in the Decision on Principles for theDevelopment of International Standards, Guides and Recommendations issued by the World Trade Organization Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Committee.1resulting from gamma photon interactions. The output from thepreamplifi
17、er is directly proportional to the energy deposited bythe incident gamma-ray. These current pulses are fed into anamplifier of sufficient gain to produce voltage output pulses inthe amplitude range from 0 to 10 V.4.4 A multichannel pulse-height analyzer is used to deter-mine the amplitude of each pu
18、lse originating in the detector,and accumulates in a memory the number of pulses in eachamplitude band (or channel) in a given counting time. Com-puterized systems with stored programs and interface hardwarecan accomplish the same functions as hardwired multichannelanalyzers. The primary advantages
19、of the computerized systeminclude the capability of programming the multi-channel ana-lyzer functions and the ability to immediately perform datareduction calculations using the spectral data stored in thecomputer memory or mass storage device. Fora0to2-MeVspectrum, 4000 or more channels are typical
20、ly needed in orderto fully utilize a germanium detectors excellent energy reso-lution.4.5 The distribution of the amplitudes (pulse heights) of thepulses can be separated into two principal components. One ofthese components has a nearly Gaussian distribution and is theresult of total absorption of
21、the gamma-ray energy in thedetector. This peak is normally referred to as the full-energypeak or photopeak. The other component is a continuous onelower in energy than that of the photopeak. This continuouscurve is referred to as the Compton continuum and is due tointeractions wherein the gamma phot
22、ons deposit only part oftheir energy in the detector. These two portions of the curve areshown in Fig. 1. Other peaks, such as escape peaks, backscat-tered gamma rays or X rays from shields, are often superim-posed on the Compton continuum. Escape peaks will bepresent when gamma-rays with energies g
23、reater than 1.02 MeVare emitted from the sample. The positron formed in pairproduction is usually annihilated in the detector and one orboth of the 511keV annihilation quanta may escape from thedetector without interaction. This condition will cause single ordouble escape peaks at energies of 0.511
24、or 1.022 MeV lessthan the photopeak energy. In the plot of pulse height versuscount rate, the size and location of the photopeak on the pulseheight axis is proportional to the number and energy of theincident photons, and is the basis for the quantitative andqualitative application of the spectromet
25、er. The Comptoncontinuum serves no useful purpose in photopeak analysis andmust be subtracted when peaks are analyzed.4.6 If the analysis is being directed and monitored by anonline computer program, the analysis period may be termi-nated by prerequisites incorporated in the program. If theanalysis
26、is being performed with a modern multichannelanalyzer, analysis may be terminated when a preselected timeor total counts in a region of interest or in a specified channelis reached. Visual inspection of a display of accumulated datacan also be used as a criterion for manually terminating theanalysis
27、 on either type of data acquisition systems.4.7 Upon completion of the analysis, the spectral data areinterpreted and reduced to include activity of Bq (disintegra-tion per second) or related units suited to the particularapplication. At this time the spectral data may be inspected toidentify the ga
28、mma-ray emitters present. This is accomplishedby reading the channel number from the x-axis and convertingto gamma-ray energy by multiplying by the appropriate keV/channel (system gain). In some systems the channel number orgamma-ray energy in keV can be displayed for any selectedchannel. Identifica
29、tion of nuclides may be aided by catalogs ofgamma-ray spectra and other nuclear data tabulations (3,6-8).4.7.1 Computer programs for data reduction have been usedextensively although calculations for some applications can beperformed effectively with the aid of a scientific calculator.Data reduction
30、 of spectra taken with germanium spectrometrysystems is usually accomplished by integration of the photo-peaks above a definable background (or baseline) and subse-quent activity calculations using a library which includes datasuch as nuclide name, half-life, gamma-ray energies, andabsolute gamma in
31、tensity.FIG. 1 Cesium-137 SpectrumD3649 06 (2014)25. Significance and Use5.1 Gamma-ray spectrometry is of use in identifying radio-nuclides and in making quantitative measurements. Use of asemiconductor detector is necessary for high-resolution mea-surements.5.2 Variation of the physical geometry of
32、 the sample and itsrelationship with the detector will produce both qualitative andquantitative variations in the gamma-ray spectrum. To ad-equately account for these geometry effects, calibrations aredesigned to duplicate all conditions including source-to-detector distance, sample shape and size,
33、and sample matrixencountered when samples are measured.5.3 Since some spectrometry systems are calibrated at manydiscrete distances from the detector, a wide range of activitylevels can be measured on the same detector. For high-levelsamples, extremely low-efficiency geometries may be used.Quantitat
34、ive measurements can be made accurately and pre-cisely when high activity level samples are placed at distancesof 10 cm or more from the detector.5.4 Electronic problems, such as erroneous deadtimecorrection, loss of resolution, and random summing, may beavoided by keeping the gross count rate below
35、 2000 counts persecond (s1) and also keeping the deadtime of the analyzerbelow 5 %. Total counting time is governed by the radioactiv-ity of the sample, the detector to source distance and theacceptable Poisson counting uncertainty.6. Interferences6.1 In complex mixtures of gamma-ray emitters, the d
36、egreeof interference of one nuclide in the determination of anotheris governed by several factors. If the gamma-ray emission ratesfrom different radionuclides are similar, interference will occurwhen the photopeaks are not completely resolved and overlap.If the nuclides are present in the mixture in
37、 unequal portionsradiometrically, and if nuclides of higher gamma-ray energiesare predominant, there are serious interferences with theinterpretation of minor, less energetic gamma-ray photopeaks.The complexity of the analysis method is due to the resolutionof these interferences and, thus, one of t
38、he main reasons forcomputerized systems.6.2 Cascade summing may occur when nuclides that decayby a gamma-ray cascade are analyzed. Cobalt-60 is an ex-ample; 1172 and 1333-keV gamma rays from the same decaymay enter the detector to produce a sum peak at 2505 keV andcause the loss of counts from the o
39、ther two peaks. Cascadesumming may be reduced by increasing the source to detectordistance. Summing is more significant if a well-type detector isused.6.3 Random summing is a function of counting rate andoccurs in all measurements. The random summing rate isproportional to the total count squared an
40、d the resolving timeof the detector. For most systems random summing losses canbe held to less than 1 % by limiting the total counting rate to2000 counts per second (s1). Refer to Test Methods E181 formore information.6.4 The density of the sample is another factor that caneffect quantitative result
41、s. Errors from this source can beavoided by preparing the standards for calibration in solutionsor other matrices with a density comparable to the samplebeing analyzed.7. Apparatus7.1 Gamma Ray Spectrometer, consisting of the followingcomponents:7.1.1 Detector Assembly:7.1.1.1 Germanium DetectorThe
42、detector may have avolume of about 50 to 150 cm3, with a full width at one-half thepeak maximum (FWHM) less than 2.2 keV at 1332 keV,certified by the manufacturer. A charge-sensitive preamplifierusing low noise field effect transistors should be an integralpart of the detector assembly. A convenient
43、 support should beprovided for samples of the desired form.7.1.1.2 ShieldThe detector assembly may be surroundedby an external radiation shield made of a dense metal,equivalent to 102 mm of lead in gamma-ray attenuationcapability. It is desirable that the inner walls of the shield be atleast 127 mm
44、distant from the detector surfaces to reducebackscatter. If the shield is made of lead or a lead liner, theshield may have a graded inner shield of 1.6 mm of cadmiumor tin lined with 0.4 mm of copper, to attenuate the 88-keV PbX-rays. The shield should have a door or port for inserting andremoving s
45、amples.7.1.1.3 High Voltage Power/Bias SupplyThe bias supplyrequired for germanium detectors usually provides a voltage upto 5000 V and up to 100 A. The power supply should beregulated to 0.1 % with a ripple of not more than 0.01 %. Linenoise caused by other equipment should be removed with rffilter
46、s and additional regulators.7.1.1.4 AmplifierAn amplifier compatible with the pream-plifier and with the pulse-height analyzer shall be provided.7.1.2 Data Acquisition and Storage Equipment:7.1.2.1 Data AcquisitionsA multichannel pulse-heightanalyzer (MCA) or stand-alone analog-to-digital-converter(
47、ADC) under software control of a separate computer, per-forms many functions required for gamma-ray spectrometry.An MCA or computer collects the data, provides a visualdisplay, and outputs final results or raw data for later analysis.The four major components of an MCA are the ADC, thememory, contro
48、l, and input/output. More recently, digitalsignal processors (DSP) can directly amplify and digitizesignals from the preamplifier, replacing individual amplifierand ADC components. The ADC digitizes the analog pulsesfrom the amplifier. These pulses represent energy. The digitalresult is used by the
49、MCAto select a memory location (channelnumber) which is used to store the number of events whichhave occurred with that energy. Simple data analysis andcontrol of the MCA is accomplished with microprocessors.These processors control the input/output, channel summingover set regions of interest, and system energy calibration toname a few examples.7.1.2.2 Data StorageBecause of the use of microproces-sors modern MCAs provide a wide range of input and output(I/O) capabilities.D3649 06 (2014)38. Sampling8.1 Collect the sample in accordance with Practice D1066,Practices D33
