1、34.1CHAPTER 34ENERGY RESOURCESCHARACTERISTICS OF ENERGY AND ENERGY RESOURCE FORMS . 34.1On-Site Energy/Energy Resource Relationships 34.2Summary 34.3ENERGY RESOURCE PLANNING. 34.3Integrated Resource Planning (IRP) 34.3Tradable Emission Credits . 34.3OVERVIEW OF GLOBAL ENERGY RESOURCES. 34.4World Ene
2、rgy Resources 34.4Carbon Emissions 34.6U.S. Energy Use . 34.7U.S. Agencies and Associations . 34.8NERGY used in buildings and facilities is responsible for 30E to 40% of the worlds energy use, significantly impacting worldenergy resources. ASHRAEs work to reduce energy consumptionin the built enviro
3、nment is equally as important as research on new,more sustainable energy sources in helping ensure a reliable andsecure supply of energy for future generations.Many governmental agencies regulate energy conservation, oftenthrough the procedures to obtain building permits. Required effi-ciency values
4、 for building energy use strongly influence selection ofHVAC or (2) renewableresources, which have the potential to regenerate in a reasonableperiod. Resources used most in industrialized countries are nonre-newable (ASHRAE 2003).Note that renewable does not mean an infinite supply. For in-stance, h
5、ydropower is limited by rainfall and appropriate sites, usablegeothermal energy is available only in limited areas, and crops arelimited by the available farm area and competing nonenergy landuses. Other forms of renewable energy also have supply limitations.Nonrenewable resources of energy includeC
6、oalCrude oilNatural gasUranium or plutonium (nuclear energy)Renewable resources of energy includeHydropowerSolarWindEarth heat (geothermal)Biomass (wood, wood wastes, and municipal solid waste, landfillmethane, etc.)Tidal powerOcean thermalAtmosphere or large body of water (as used by the heat pump)
7、Crops (for alcohol production or as boiler fuel)Characteristics of Fossil Fuels and ElectricityMost on-site energy for buildings in developed countries involveselectricity and fossil fuels as energy sources. Both fossil fuels andelectricity can be described by their energy content (Btu). Thisimplies
8、 that energy forms are comparable and that an equivalencecan be established. In reality, however, they are only comparable inenergy terms when they are used to generate heat. Fossil fuels, forexample, cannot directly drive motors or energize light bulbs. Con-versely, electricity gives off heat as a
9、by-product regardless ofwhether it is used for running a motor or lighting a light bulb, andregardless of whether that heat is needed. Thus, electricity and fossilThe preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 2.8, Building Environmen-tal Impacts and Sustainability.34.2 2013 ASHRAE HandbookFundam
10、entalsfuels have different characteristics, uses, and capabilities aside fromany differences in their derivation.Other differences between energy forms include methods of ex-traction, transformation, transportation, and delivery, and character-istics of the resource itself. Natural gas arrives at th
11、e site in virtuallythe same form in which it was extracted from the earth. Oil is pro-cessed (distilled) before arriving at the site; having been extracted ascrude oil, it arrives at a given site as, for example, No. 2 oil or dieselfuel. Electricity is created (converted) from a different energy for
12、m,often a fossil fuel, which itself may first be converted to a thermalform. The total electricity conversion, generation, and distributionprocess includes energy losses governed largely by the laws of ther-modynamics.Fossil fuels undergo a conversion process by combustion (oxida-tion) and heat tran
13、sfer to thermal energy in the form of steam or hotwater. The conversion equipment is a boiler or a furnace in lieu of agenerator, and conversion usually occurs on a project site rather thanoff-site. (District heating or cooling is an exception.) Inefficienciesof the fossil fuel conversion occur on s
14、ite, whereas inefficiencies ofmost electricity generation occur off site, before the electricityarrives at the building site. (Cogeneration is an exception.)Sustainability is an important consideration for energy use. TheUnited Nations Brundtland Report (UN 1987) stated that the devel-opment of the
15、built environment is sustainable if it “meets the needs ofthe present without compromising the ability of future generations tomeet their own needs.” More information is in Chapter 35.ON-SITE ENERGY/ENERGY RESOURCE RELATIONSHIPSAn HVAC for electricity, it includes the percentage ofgeneration from va
16、rious fuel sources. Consider the projected futuresupply and reliability of energy resources, including the possibilityof supply disruption by natural or political events, and the likeli-hood of future supply shortages, which could reduce reliability.Reserve margins, or the ratio of total supply sour
17、ces to expectedpeak supply source needs. Reserve levels that are too high result inwaste of resources, higher environmental costs, and possibly poorfinancial health of the energy suppliers. Reserves that are too lowresult in volatile and very high peak energy prices and reduced re-liability.Land use
18、. Energy production and transmission often require gov-ernmental cooperation to condemn private property for energyproduction and transmission facilities. Construction and mainte-nance are also regulated to protect wetlands, prevent toxic wastereleases, and other environmental issues.Note that some
19、energy deregulation plans provide no guidance atall on energy supplies, through integrated resource planning (IRP) orother methods. Energy suppliers choose whether to expand theircapacity, and what types of fuel those facilities use, based on theirown assessment of the future profitability of that i
20、nvestment. In thesemarkets, decisions are made with little societal input other than per-mitting and pollution control regulations, just as a decision might bemade by a manufacturer in an industry such as steel or paper.INTEGRATED RESOURCE PLANNING (IRP)In regulated utility markets, integrated resou
21、rce planning is com-monly used for planning significant new energy facilities, especiallyfor electricity. Steps include (1) forecasting the amount of newresources needed and (2) determining the type and provider of thisresource. Traditionally, the local utility provider forecasts futureneeds of a gi
22、ven energy resource, then either builds the necessaryfacility with the approval of regulators or uses a standard offer bidto determine what nonutility provider (or the utility itself) wouldprovide the new energy resource.Supplying new energy resources through either a standard bidprocess by a suppli
23、er or traditional utility regulation usually resultsin selection of the lowest-cost supply option, without regard forenvironmental costs or other societal needs. IRP allows a greatervariety of resource options and allows environmental and other indi-rect societal costs to be given greater considerat
24、ion.IRP addresses a wider population of stakeholders than mostother planning processes. Many regulatory agencies involve thepublic in the formulation and review of integrated resource plans.Customers, environmentalists, and other public interest groups areoften prominent in these proceedings.In dere
25、gulated energy markets, supplying markets with newenergy resources is typically left up to competitive market forces.This has sometimes resulted in excessive reliance on one form ofenergy, such as natural gas generation. Another result has beenhighly volatile prices, when supply is not provided beca
26、use of insuf-ficient price signals, followed by much higher prices and energyshortages until new supply sources can be obtained (which may notbe for several years because of the time required for constructionand environmental approval processes). Energy efficiency anddemand response programs are inc
27、reasingly treated as an energyresource on a par with energy production options, with incentivesand compensation provided for participants in these programs.Demand-side management (DSM) is a common option for pro-viding new energy resources, especially for electricity. These areactions taken to reduc
28、e the demand for energy, rather than increasethe supply of energy. DSM is desirable because its environmentalcosts are almost always lower than those of building new energyfacilities. However, the following factors have caused a decline inthe number of DSM programs:Building and equipment codes and s
29、tandards are a highly efficientform of DSM, reducing energy use with much lower administra-tive costs than programs that reward installation of more efficientequipment at a single site. However, they are more subtle than tra-ditional DSM programs and may not always be recognized as aform of DSM.Open
30、ing markets to competing suppliers makes it more difficultto administer and implement DSM programs. However, they arestill possible if regulators wish to continue them, and set appro-priate rules and regulations for the market to allow implementa-tion of DSM programs.Many IRP participants may be int
31、erested in only one aspect ofthe process. For example, the energy industrys main interest may becost minimization, whereas environmentalists may want to mini-mize pollutant emissions and prevent environmental damage fromconstruction of energy facilities. Participation by all affected inter-est group
32、s helps provide the best overall solution for society, includ-ing indirect costs and benefits from these energy resource decisions.TRADABLE EMISSION CREDITSIncreasingly, quotas and limits apply to emissions of various pol-lutants. Often, a market-based system of tradable credits is usedwith these qu
33、otas. A company is given the right to produce a givenlevel of emissions, and it earns a credit, which can be sold to others,if it produces fewer emissions than that level. If one company canreduce its emissions at a lower cost than another, it can do so and sellthe emissions credit to the second com
34、pany and earn a profit from itspollution control efforts. In the United States, emissions quota andtrading programs currently include sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitro-gen oxides (NOx), with plans to implement carbon dioxide (CO2)trading now under consideration, as well. In Europe, emissions34.4 2013 A
35、SHRAE HandbookFundamentalstrading for CO2began January 1, 2005. To date, this type of activityhas mostly involved large industrial plants, but it can also involvecommercial buildings with on-site emissions, such as generationequipment or gas-engine-driven cooling.Designers must be aware of any regul
36、ations concerning pollutantemissions; failure to comply with these regulations may result incivil or criminal penalties for designers or their clients. However,understand the options available under these regulations. The pur-chase or sale of emissions credits may allow reduced construction orbuildi
37、ng operations costs if the equipment can overcomply at alower cost than the cost of another source of emissions to comply, orvice versa. In some cases, documentation of energy savings beyondwhat codes and regulations require can result in receiving emissionscredits that may be sold later.OVERVIEW OF
38、 GLOBAL ENERGY RESOURCESWORLD ENERGY RESOURCESData in this section are from the Statistical Review of WorldEnergy 2012 (BP 2012).ProductionEnergy production trends, by leading producers and worldregions, from 2001 to 2010 are shown in Figure 1.World primary energy production increased 26.6% from 200
39、1 to2010, as dramatic economic growth occurred in countries such asChina, which more than doubled its energy production since 2001.The largest total energy producers in 2010 were China (19%), theUnited States (15%), Russia (10%), and Saudi Arabia (6%). To-gether, they produced about 50% of the world
40、s energy production.Total world energy production by resource type for 2001 and2010 is shown in Figure 2. The greatest growth in energy productionamong major sources has been coal, up nearly 52% in usage from2001 to 2010, and natural gas, which has increased 28.7%, and hydro-electric, up 32.6%. Petr
41、oleum use only rose 8.7%. Nonhydro renew-ables use more than doubled, but is still a small percentage of totalworld energy production (EIA 2011).Crude Oil. World crude oil production was 82.1 million barrelsper day in 2010. The biggest crude oil producers in 2010 were theMiddle East (30%), Russia (1
42、3%), Central/South America (9%), theUnited States (9%), and China (5%). Since 2001, oil production in-creased 66% in Russia and declined by 4% in the United States(although between 2005 and 2010, U.S. production actually in-creased 8%).Natural Gas. World production reached 112.8 trillion ft3in2010,
43、up 32% from the 2000 level. The biggest producers in 2005were the United States (19%), Russia (18%), Canada (5%), Iran(5%), and Qatar (4%).Coal. At 148.1 quadrillion Btu3in 2010, coal production was up58.6% since 2000. Leading producers of coal were China (48%), theUnited States (15%), India (6%), a
44、nd Australia (6%). Since 2000,China increased coal production 136%, and India increased 63%,whereas U.S. production fell by 3%.ReservesOn January 1, 2011, estimated world reserves of crude oil andgas were distributed by world region as shown in Figures 3 and 4.Countries with the largest reported cru
45、de oil reserves are SaudiArabia (18%), Canada (12%), Iran (9%), and Iraq (8%). Most ofCanadas crude oil reserves are in the form of tar sands, which haveonly recently been included as proven reserves.World coal reserves as of January 1, 2010, are shown by regionin Figure 5. The most plentiful reserv
46、es, as a percent of total, werein the United States (28%), Russia (18%), China (13%), Australia(9%), and India (7%).Fig. 1 Energy Production Trends: 2001-2010(Basis: BP 2012)Fig. 2 World Primary Energy Production by Resource:2001 Versus 2010(Basis: BP 2012)Fig. 3 World Crude Oil Reserves: 2011(Basis
47、: BP 2012)Fig. 4 World Natural Gas Reserves: 2011(Basis: BP 2012)Energy Resources 34.5An important factor is the relative amount of these energyresources that has not yet been consumed. A standard measure iscalled proved energy reserves, which is the remaining knowndeposits that could be recovered e
48、conomically given current eco-nomic and operating conditions. Dividing proved reserves by thecurrent production rate gives the number of years of the resourceremaining. Using this measure, the reserve-to-production ratio atthe end of 2010 for crude oil was 52.6 years; for natural gas, 59.0years; and
49、 for coal, 118.4 years.This does not mean that these resources will be depleted in thatlength of time: additional resources may be discovered in new areas,and improved technology may increase the amount of a resource thatmay be economically extracted. Also, the future rate of production andconsumption may be higher or lower than current levels, which woulddecrease or increase the remaining years of a resource. However,reserve-to-production ratios provide insights into the limited nature ofnonrenewable energy resources and the need to find alternatives, espe-cially for resources with
