1、35.1CHAPTER 35SUSTAINABILITYDefinition. 35.1Characteristics of Sustainability. 35.1Factors Impacting Sustainability 35.2Primary HVAC however,they should make their fair-share contribution to sustainability in alltheir endeavors, and encourage other individuals and entities to dothe same.Sustainabili
2、ty Is ComprehensiveSustainability has no borders or limits. A good-faith effort tomake a project sustainable does not mean that sustainability will beachieved globally. A superb design job on a building with sustain-ability as a goal will probably not contribute much to the global sit-uation if a si
3、gnificant number of other buildings are not so designed,or if the transportation sector makes an inadequate contribution, or ifonly a few regions of the world do their fair share toward making theplanet sustainable. A truly sustainable outcome thus depends oncomprehensive efforts in all sectors the
4、world around.The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 2.8, Building Environmen-tal Impacts and Sustainability.35.2 2017 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals Technology Plays Only a Partial RoleIt may well be that in due time technology will have the theoret-ical capability, if diligently applied, to
5、 create a sustainable future forthe planet and humankind. Having the capability to apply technol-ogy, however, does not guarantee that it will be applied; that mustcome from attitude or mindset. As with all things related to compre-hensive change, there must be the will.For example, automobile compa
6、nies have long had the technicalcapability to make cars much more efficient; some developed coun-tries highly dependent on imported oil have brought their transpor-tation sectors close to self sufficiency. Until recently, that has notbeen the case in the United States. Part of the change is because
7、ofincreased customer demand, but more of it is driven by governmentregulation (efficiency standards). The technology is available, butthe will is not there; large-scale motivation is absent, what existsbeing mostly driven by regulation and the motivated few.Similarly, HVAC (2) the U.S. Green Buildin
8、g Councils (USGBC) Leadershipin Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green BuildingRating System; (3) the American Institute of Architects (AIA)2030 Challenge (AIA 2011); (4) the Green Building Institutes(GBI) Green Globes (www.thegbi.org/greenglobes); and (5) theU.S. Environmental Protection Agen
9、cys (EPA) ENERGY STARprogram (www.energystar.gov/). The European Union (E.U.) hasalso taken a lead in the fight against climate change and promotinga low-carbon economy, although unsustainable trends persist inmany areas.ASHRAEs mission “to advance the arts and sciences ofHVACSustainability 35.3inde
10、ed, that awareness may affect decisions within the designerscontrol.For instance, familiarity with an energy resources emissionscharacteristics, whether at the well head, mine mouth, or generatingstation, may influence the designer to make the building moreenergy efficient, or provide the designer w
11、ith arguments to convincethe owner that energy-saving features in the building would beworth additional capital cost. Furthermore, as owners and develop-ers of buildings become more aware of sustainability factors,designers must stay informed of the latest information and impacts.One way to reduce a
12、 projects use of nonrenewable energy,beyond energy-efficient design itself, is to replace such energy usewith renewable energy. Designers should develop familiarity withhow projects might incorporate and benefit from renewable energy.Many kinds of passive design features can take advantage of natu-r
13、ally occurring energy.Increasingly common examples of nonpassive approaches aresolar systems, whether photovoltaic (electricity-generating) orsolar thermal (hot-fluid generating). Low-level geothermal sys-tems take advantage of naturally occurring and widely distributedearth-embedded energy. Wind sy
14、stems are increasingly applied tosupplement electric power grids, and are also sometimes incorpo-rated on a smaller scale into on-site or distributed generationapproaches.Some large power users, such as municipalities or large indus-tries, require that a minimum percentage of power they purchase bef
15、rom renewable sources. Also, renewable portfolio standards arebeing imposed on electric utility companies by regulators.Fresh Water SupplyHVAC similarly to theEPAs ENERGY STAR program, products are certified by an out-side third party before they can claim the WaterSense label.ASHRAE is also develop
16、ing a standard to provide minimumrequirements for the design of mechanical systems that limit thevolume of water required to operate HVAC systems (ProposedStandard 191P).In Europe, the U.K. Building Regulations (U.K. 2015) requiresthat design water consumption be reduced in new homes, with acombined
17、 hot- and cold-water consumption of no more than 33 galper person per day of potable water. Alternative sources of lower-grade water, such as harvested rainwater and reclaimed gray water,may also be used for functions such as toilet flushing, subject to spe-cific measures. The 2015 edition introduce
18、d an optional require-ment of 29 gal per person per day where required by planningpermission, and an alternative fittings-based approach to demon-strating compliance instead of the prescribed calculation method.Discharge from building systems can be reduced through carefuldesign, proper sequences an
19、d control, and choosing lower-impactchemical or nonchemical water treatment. These techniques maynot eliminate chemical treatment in all applications, but negativeeffects from such usage can be substantially reduced.Water/Energy Nexus. The water/energy nexus refers to the inter-dependent and insepar
20、able nature of these two important resources.From large-scale utilities to the built environment, water productionrequires energy to extract and deliver for consumption, and electric-ity generation and energy sources (e.g., thermal and nuclear powergeneration, hydraulic fracturing, biofuels) demand
21、significantamounts of water for production. With approximately 8% of theglobal energy generation used for pumping, treatment, and transpor-tation of water resources and approximately 15% of the worlds totalwater withdrawal used for energy production, each resource willcontinue to face rising demands
22、 and constraints as a consequence ofeconomic and population growth and climate change.Increasing energy demands, as well as naturally occurring waterconstraints such as droughts, heat waves, or human-induced short-ages, mean that demands on water resources can be expected toincrease. In addition, ch
23、anging temperatures, shifting precipitationpatterns, increasing variability, and more extreme weather add sig-nificant uncertainty about water availability. Water and energy, intheir various classifications, are generally viewed in individualsilos, which has limited adoption of integrated solutions.
24、 To prop-erly address the challenges and opportunities around the water/energy nexus, emphasis on policy incentives and sustainable engi-neering solutions promoting optimized, efficient use of eachresource, as well as advancement in technologies promoting bothwater and energy conservation, are neede
25、d.Material Resource Availability and ManagementEnvironmentally conscious design and construction practices areincreasingly motivating design teams to apply life-cycle thinkingand look in to the embodied impacts (e.g., embodied energy,embodied CO2, other equivalent environmental impact indicators)of
26、their systems design, although this is not yet a common practice.For example, within the LEED framework, building systems underthe purview of HVACwww.nist.gov/services-resources/software/bees) and the Tool forReduction and Assessment of Chemicals and Other EnvironmentalImpacts (TRACI), which focus o
27、n chemical releases and raw mate-rials usage in products. The Athena Sustainable Materials Institutesdecision support tool provides a cradle-to-grave, process-basedLCA, including regional data such as energy mix for power gener-ation, transportation modes, etc. (www.athenasmi.org/what-we-do/lca-data
28、-software/). Regional data are important because conver-sion factors to primary energy and GHG emissions can differ bycountry, depending on energy sources used (e.g., coal- or oil-firedpower plants versus solar or natural-gas-based generation).LCA-based information may be in the form of environmenta
29、lproduct declarations (EPD) based on CEN Standard 15804, orproduct environmental footprints (PEFs) inspired by ISO Stan-dards 14040 and 14044 and voluntary environmental declarations(ISO Standard 14025). They have been gaining in popularitybeyond building construction materials, given the growing cr
30、iteriaof green building certifications such as LEED v4 credit, which nowrewards selection of HVAC products with EPDs, based on theupdated LEED credit interpretation in early 2015. Another exam-ple is the French EPD program and national decree that regulatesEPDs for construction products, which will
31、also address HVACequipment and other technical installations by mid-2017 (Passer etal. 2015).LCA can also assess specific refurbishments intended to improveenergy performance of systems in existing buildings. For example,replacing electric or gas water heaters with solar hot-water systemscan provide
32、 net emissions savings compared with the conventionalsystems after 0.6 month to 2.5 years, depending on the auxiliary fuel(Crawford et al. 2003). For solar domestic hot-water systems andsolar central space heating, the energy consumed by producing andinstalling the solar systems is recovered in abou
33、t 1.2 years, and thepayback time for the systems embodied energy emissions variesfrom a few months (for solar domestic water heating) to 9.5 years(for solar central space heating), again depending on the energycarrier for the conventional system and the specific environmentalemission indicators cons
34、idered (Kalogirou 2004).Air, Noise, and Water PollutionHVAC the agree-ment governs greenhouse gas emissions measures from 2020 andlimits average global warming to 3.6F above preindustrial tem-peratures, while striving for a limit of 2.7F. It also aims tostrengthen the ability to deal with the impact
35、s of climate change.Crucial areas includeMitigation: reducing emissions quickly enough to achieve thetemperature goalTransparency system and global stock-taking: accounting for cli-mate actionAdaptation: strengthening countries ability to deal with climateimpactsLoss and damage: strengthening abilit
36、y to recover from climateimpactsSupport (including financial support): for nations to build clean,resilient futures (e.g., work to define a clear roadmap on ratchet-ing up climate finance to USD 100 billion by 2020 for developingnations)The agreement will come into force after 55 countries thataccou
37、nt for at least 55% of global emissions have deposited theirinstruments of ratification. Accordingly, each country should set upa bottom-up system, setting its own goals for nationally determinedcontribution and a coherent plan for reaching these objectives. Start-ing in 2018, each country will have
38、 to increase their pledges overtime and submit new plans every five years. (See also the discussionin the section on Regulatory Environment.)Responsible designers are concerned with multiple dimensionsof climate change: not only what they can do to reduce their designscontribution, but also whether
39、and how their designs should anti-cipate the future. It is the first that is the focus of this chapter anda majority of the available information on sustainable design.Warming trends currently occurring have been observed with cer-tainty. As a result, historical weather data may not be the best sour
40、cefor load calculations. Depending on the rate of change, anticipatingfuture weather may become more significant in its impact on the cli-mate control of building systems.Responsible designers are concerned with two dimensions of cli-mate change: not only what they can do to reduce their designs con
41、-tribution, but also whether and how their designs should anticipatethe future. It is the first that is the focus of this chapter and a majorityof the available information on sustainable design. Warming trendscurrently occurring have been observed with certainty. As a result,historical weather data
42、 may not be the best source for load calcula-tions. Depending on the rate of change, anticipating future weathermay become more significant in its impact on the climate control ofbuilding systems.Regulatory EnvironmentThe global community has responded to two major environmen-tal issues during the p
43、ast two decades. In the late 1980s, the Mon-treal Protocol (UNEP 2003) regulated the manufacture and trade ofrefrigerants that had been shown to damage the stratosphere bydepleting stratospheric ozone. The effect on the HVAC www.rggi.org) states and California. In the United States, a consolidation
44、of green building codes isplanned: the merger of ASHRAE Standard 189.1 and ICCs Inter-national Green Construction Code (see also the section on EvolvingStandards of Care) is on track to occur in 2018. Energy efficiencylevels in U.S. codes will continue to improve, with the green build-ing codes evol
45、ving toward a net energy intensity level that, by 2025,is 20 to 25% of the code minimums that existed at the turn of the21st century.Under its 2020 strategy, the E.U. has committed to an ambitiousplan and introduced binding legislation for the E.U. Member Statesto meet three climate and energy targe
46、ts by the end of 2020: (1) 20%cut in GHG emissions from 1990 levels, (2) obtain 20% of E.U.energy from renewables, and (3) 20% improvement in energy effi-ciency (ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/strategies/index_en.htm). TheE.U. emissions trading system (E.U. ETS) is a cornerstone of thepolicy to combat
47、climate change and a key tool for reducing indus-trial GHG cost effectively. The ETS covers more than 11,000 powerstations and industrial plants in 31 countries, as well as airlines, andaccounts for about 55% of total E.U. emissions. For sectors not inthe ETS, the E.U. Member States have taken on bi
48、nding annual tar-gets until 2020 for cutting emissions under the effort-sharing deci-sion (between 2013 and 2020) according to national wealth,measured by gross domestic product per capita; these targets rangefrom a 20% cut for the richest countries (e.g., Luxembourg, Den-mark) to a maximum 20% incr
49、ease for the least wealthy (e.g., Bul-garia). Moreover, a new E.U. framework has set three key targets for2030: (1) at least 40% cuts in GHG, (2) at least 27% share for renew-able energy, and (3) at least 27% improvement in energy efficiency.The 2050 roadmap suggests that the E.U. should cut emissions to 80to 95% below 1990 levels.Evolving Standards of CareThis section is based on Lawrence et al. (2016).Litigation relating to sustainability and global climate issues hasincreased. For example, a consortium of states successfully sued,and the U.S. Supreme Court agreed in
