1、11.1CHAPTER 11STEAM SYSTEMSAdvantages. 11.1Fundamentals. 11.1Effects of Water, Air, and Gases 11.2Heat Transfer . 11.2Basic Steam System Design . 11.2Steam Source 11.2Boiler Connections 11.3Design Steam Pressure 11.4Piping. 11.5Condensate Removal from Temperature-Regulated Equipment. 11.6Steam Traps
2、 11.7Pressure-Reducing Valves 11.9Terminal Equipment . 11.11Convection Steam Heating. 11.11Steam Distribution . 11.12Temperature Control 11.13Heat Recovery 11.14Combined Steam and Water Systems . 11.15Commissioning. 11.16TEAM systems use the vapor phase of water to supply heat orS kinetic energy thr
3、ough a piping system. As a source of heat,steam can heat a conditioned space with suitable terminal heat trans-fer equipment such as fan-coil units, unit heaters, radiators, and con-vectors (finned tube or cast iron), or through a heat exchanger thatsupplies hot water or some other heat transfer med
4、ium to the termi-nal units. In addition, steam is commonly used in heat exchangers(shell-and-tube, plate, or coil types) to heat domestic hot water andsupply heat for industrial and commercial processes such as in laun-dries and kitchens. Steam is also used as a heat source for certaincooling proces
5、ses such as single-stage and two-stage absorptionrefrigeration machines.ADVANTAGESSteam offers the following advantages: Steam flows through the system unaided by external energysources such as pumps.Because of its low density, steam can be used in tall buildingswhere water systems create excessive
6、pressure.Terminal units can be added or removed without making basicchanges to the design.Steam components can be repaired or replaced by closing thesteam supply, without the difficulties associated with drainingand refilling a water system.Steam is pressure/temperature dependent; therefore, the sys
7、temtemperature can be controlled by varying either steam pressure ortemperature.Steam can be distributed throughout a heating system with littlechange in temperature.In view of these advantages, steam is applicable to the followingfacilities:Where heat is required for process and comfort heating, su
8、ch as inindustrial plants, hospitals, restaurants, dry-cleaning plants, laun-dries, and commercial buildingsWhere the heating medium must travel great distances, such as infacilities with scattered building locations, or where the buildingheight would result in excessive pressure in a water systemWh
9、ere intermittent changes in heat load occurFUNDAMENTALSSteam is the vapor phase of water and is generated by adding moreheat than required to maintain its liquid phase at a given pressure,causing the liquid to change to vapor without any further increase intemperature. Table 1 illustrates the pressu
10、re/temperature relationshipand various other properties of steam.Temperature is the thermal state of both liquid and vapor at anygiven pressure. The values shown in Table 1 are for dry saturatedsteam. The vapor temperature can be raised by adding more heat,resulting in superheated steam, which is us
11、ed (1) where higher tem-peratures are required, (2) in large distribution systems to compen-sate for heat losses and to ensure that steam is delivered at thedesired saturated pressure and temperature, and (3) to ensure thatthe steam is dry and contains no entrained liquid that could damagesome turbi
12、ne-driven equipment.Enthalpy of the liquid hf(sensible heat) is the amount of heat inBtu required to raise the temperature of a pound of water from 32Fto the boiling point at the pressure indicated.Enthalpy of evaporation hfg(latent heat of vaporization) is theamount of heat required to change a pou
13、nd of boiling water at agiven pressure to a pound of steam at the same pressure. This sameamount of heat is released when the vapor is condensed back to aliquid.Enthalpy of the steam hg(total heat) is the combined enthalpy ofliquid and vapor and represents the total heat above 32F in thesteam.Specif
14、ic volume, the reciprocal of density, is the volume of unitmass and indicates the volumetric space that 1 lb of steam or wateroccupies.An understanding of the above helps explain some of the follow-ing unique properties and advantages of steam:Most of the heat content of steam is stored as latent he
15、at, whichpermits large quantities of heat to be transmitted efficiently withlittle change in temperature. Because the temperature of saturatedsteam is pressure dependent, a negligible temperature reductionoccurs from the reduction in pressure caused by pipe frictionlosses as steam flows through the
16、system. This occurs regardlessof the insulation efficiency, as long as the boiler maintains theinitial pressure and the steam traps remove the condensate. Con-versely, in a hydronic system, inadequate insulation can signifi-cantly reduce fluid temperature.Steam, as all fluids, flows from areas of hi
17、gh pressure to areas oflow pressure and is able to move throughout a system without anexternal energy source. Heat dissipation causes the vapor tocondense, which creates a reduction in pressure caused by theThe preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 6.1, Hydronic and SteamEquipment and System
18、s.11.2 2012 ASHRAE HandbookHVAC Systems and Equipmentdramatic change in specific volume (1600:1 at atmosphericpressure).As steam gives up its latent heat at the terminal equipment, thecondensate that forms is initially at the same pressure and temper-ature as the steam. When this condensate is disch
19、arged to a lowerpressure (as when a steam trap passes condensate to the returnsystem), the condensate contains more heat than necessary tomaintain the liquid phase at the lower pressure; this excess heatcauses some of the liquid to vaporize or “flash” to steam at thelower pressure. The amount of liq
20、uid that flashes to steam can becalculated as follows:% Flash Steam = (1)wherehf1= enthalpy of liquid at pressure p1hf 2= enthalpy of liquid at pressure p2hfg2= latent heat of vaporization at pressure p2Flash steam contains significant and useful heat energy that canbe recovered and used (see the se
21、ction on Heat Recovery). Thisreevaporation of condensate can be controlled (minimized) by sub-cooling the condensate within the terminal equipment before it dis-charges into the return piping. The volume of condensate that issubcooling should not be so large as to cause a significant loss ofheat tra
22、nsfer (condensing) surface.EFFECTS OF WATER, AIR, AND GASESEnthalpies in Table 1 are for dry saturated steam. Most systemsoperate near these theoretically available values, but the presence ofwater and gases can affect enthalpy, as well as have other adverseoperating effects.Dry saturated steam is p
23、ure vapor without entrained water drop-lets. However, some amount of water usually carries over as con-densate forms because of heat losses in the distribution system.Steam quality describes the amount of water present and can bedetermined by calorimeter tests. The quality of saturated steam canbe i
24、mproved by installing a separator in-line before the equipment.Although steam quality might not have a significant effect on theheat transfer capabilities of the terminal equipment, the backing upor presence of condensate can be significant because the enthalpy ofcondensate hfis negligible compared
25、with the enthalpy of evapora-tion hfg. If condensate does not drain properly from pipes and coils,the rapidly flowing steam can push a slug of condensate through thesystem. This can cause water hammer and result in objectionablenoise and damage to piping and system components.The presence of air als
26、o reduces steam temperature. Air reducesheat transfer because it migrates to and insulates heat transfersurfaces. Further, oxygen in the system causes pitting of iron andsteel surfaces. Carbon dioxide (CO2) traveling with steam dissolvesin condensate, forming carbonic acid, which is extremely corros
27、iveto steam heating pipes and heat transfer equipment.The combined adverse effects of water, air, and CO2necessitatetheir prompt and efficient removal.HEAT TRANSFERThe quantity of steam that must be supplied to a heat exchangerto transfer a specific amount of heat is a function of (1) the steamtempe
28、rature and quality, (2) the character and entering and leavingtemperatures of the medium to be heated, and (3) the heat exchangerdesign. For a more detailed discussion of heat transfer, see Chapter4 of the 2009 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals.BASIC STEAM SYSTEM DESIGNBecause of the various codes and reg
29、ulations governing the designand operation of boilers, pressure vessels, and systems, steam sys-tems are classified according to operating pressure. Low-pressuresystems operate up to 15 psig, and high-pressure systems operateover 15 psig. There are many subclassifications within these broadclassific
30、ations, especially for heating systems such as one- and two-pipe, gravity, vacuum, or variable vacuum return systems. However,these subclassifications relate to the distribution system or tempera-ture-control method. Regardless of classification, all steam systemsinclude a source of steam, a distrib
31、ution system, and terminal equip-ment, where steam is used as the source of power or heat.STEAM SOURCESteam can be generated directly by boilers using oil, gas, coal,wood, or waste as a fuel source, or by solar, nuclear, or electricalenergy as a heat source. Steam can be generated indirectly byrecov
32、ering heat from processes or equipment such as gas turbinesand diesel or gas engines. Cogeneration of electricity and steamshould always be considered for facilities that have year-roundsteam requirements. Where steam is used as a power source (e.g.,in turbine-driven equipment), exhaust steam may be
33、 used in heattransfer equipment for process and space heating.Steam can be provided by a facilitys own boiler or cogenerationplant or can be purchased from a central utility serving a city or spe-cific geographic area. This distinction can be very important. A facil-ity with its own boiler plant usu
34、ally has a closed-loop system andrequires the condensate to be as hot as possible when it returns to theboiler. Conversely, condensate return pumps require a few degrees ofsubcooling to prevent cavitation or flashing of condensate to vapor atthe suction eye of pump impellers. The degree of subcoolin
35、g varies,depending on the hydraulic design or characteristics of the pump inTable 1 Properties of Saturated SteamPressure, psiSaturationTemperature,FSpecific Volume, ft3/lb Enthalpy, Btu/lbLiquid vfSteam vgLiquid hfEvaporation hfgSteam hgGage Absolute25 in. Hg vac. 2.47 134 0.0163 142.2 101 1018 111
36、99.6 in. Hg vac. 10.0 193 0.0166 38.4 161 982 11430 14.7 212 0.0167 26.8 180 970 11502 16.7 218 0.0168 23.8 187 966 11535 19.7 227 0.0168 20.4 195 961 115615 29.7 250 0.0170 13.9 218 946 116450 64.7 298 0.0174 6.7 267 912 1179100 114.7 338 0.0179 3.9 309 881 1190150 164.7 366 0.0182 2.8 339 857 1196
37、200 214.7 388 0.0185 2.1 362 837 1200Note: Values are rounded off or approximated to illustrate various properties discussed in text. For calculation and design, use values of thermodynamic properties of water shownin Chapter 1 of the 2009 ASHRAE HandbookFundamentals or a similar table.100 hf1hf2hf
38、g2-Steam Systems 11.3use. See the section on Pump Suction Characteristics (NPSH) inChapter 44.Central utilities often do not take back condensate, so it is dis-charged by the using facility and results in an open-loop system. Ifa utility does take back condensate, it rarely gives credit for its heat
39、content. If condensate is returned at 180F, and a heat recovery sys-tem reduces this temperature to 80F, the heat remaining in thecondensate represents 10 to 15% of the heat purchased from the util-ity. Using this heat effectively can reduce steam and heating costs by10% or more (see the section on
40、Heat Recovery).BoilersFired and waste heat boilers are usually constructed and labeledaccording to the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code becausepressures normally exceed 15 psig. Details on design, construction,and application of boilers can be found in Chapter 32. Boiler selec-tion is based on t
41、he combined loads, including heating processesand equipment that use steam, hot water generation, piping losses,and pickup allowance.The Hydronics Institute standards (HYDI 1989) are used to testand rate most low-pressure heating boilers that have net and grossratings. In smaller systems, selection
42、is based on a net rating. Largersystem selection is made on a gross load basis. The occurrence andnature of the load components, with respect to the total load, deter-mine the number of boilers used in an installation.Heat Recovery and Waste Heat BoilersSteam can be generated by waste heat, such as
43、exhaust from fuel-fired engines and turbines. Figure 1 schematically shows a typicalexhaust boiler and heat recovery system used for diesel engines. Aportion of the water used to cool the engine block is diverted as pre-heated makeup water to the exhaust heat boiler to obtain maximumheat and energy
44、efficiency. Where the quantity of steam generatedby the waste heat boiler is not steady or ample enough to satisfy thefacilitys steam requirements, a conventional boiler must generatesupplemental steam.Heat ExchangersHeat exchangers are used in most steam systems. Steam-to-waterheat exchangers (some
45、times called converters or storage tanks withsteam heating elements) are used to heat domestic hot water and tosupply the terminal equipment. These heat exchangers are the platetype or the shell-and-tube type, where the steam is admitted to theshell and the water is heated as it circulates through t
46、he tubes.Condensate coolers (water-to-water) are sometimes used to subcoolthe condensate while reclaiming the heat energy.Water-to-steam heat exchangers (steam generators) are used inhigh-temperature water (HTW) systems to provide process steam.Such heat exchangers generally consist of a U-tube bund
47、le, throughwhich the HTW circulates, installed in a tank or pressure vessel.All heat exchangers should be constructed and labeled accordingto the applicable ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code. Manyjurisdictions require double-wall construction in shell-and-tube heatexchangers between the steam and
48、 potable water. Chapter 48 dis-cusses heat exchangers in detail.BOILER CONNECTIONSFigure 2 shows recommended boiler connections for pumpedand gravity return systems; local codes should be checked for spe-cific legal requirements.Supply PipingSmall boilers usually have one steam outlet connection siz
49、ed toreduce steam velocity to minimize carryover of water into supplylines. Large boilers can have several outlets that minimize boilerwater entrainment. The boiler manufacturers recommendationsconcerning near-boiler piping should be followed because this pip-ing may act as a steam/liquid separator for the boiler.Figure 2 shows piping connections to the steam header. Al-though some engineers prefer to use an enlarged steam header foradditional storage space, if there is no sudden demand for steamexcept during the warm-up period, an oversi
