1、2009 ASHRAE 729ABSTRACTMechanical ventilation has been used since the middle 19thcentury as an effective method of providing acceptable conditions of indoor air in buildings. Mechanical ventilation systems have traditionally been the method of choice by which to ventilate hospitality venues where sm
2、oking occurs indoors. Mechanical ventilation systems work by introducing air into and moving air through buildings to achieve indoor air quality that is comparable to outdoor air quality. The Federation of European Heating and Air-Conditioning Associations (REHVA) in Guideline 4 “Ventilation and smo
3、king: Reducing the exposure to ETS in buildings” provides guidance on best practices to achieve effective ventilation for hospitality venues and other buildings where smoking occurs (REHVA 2004). REHVA recognizes this topic as extremely important in respect to indoor air quality and energy consumpti
4、on. The recently approved European Union (EN) EN/DIN Standard 15251 “Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and acous-tics” recommends specific ventilation rates for spaces in bui
5、ld-ings where smoking is allowed (CEN- EN/DIN Standard 15251). Questions have been recently raised about the effect of mechanical ventilation systems on indoor air quality in hospitality venues where smoking is allowed. We have reviewed the literature available about effective mechanical ventilation
6、 and tobacco smoke and have found that very few studies purporting to establish the effect of ventilation on tobacco smoke in hospitality venues have actually measured and quantified ventilation parameters. In fact, many of these studies have not measured and quantified indoor air quality or tobacco
7、 smoke. Further although there are a few studies that have measured and reported ventilation, indoor air quality and environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) parameters, most of the hospitality venues included in these studies do not have effec-tive ventilation systems. In addition, some of the studies app
8、ear to have misclassified air filtration (cleaning) and air condi-tioning systems as ventilation systems. There is a dearth of data with which to determine the rela-tionship between effective ventilation and tobacco smoke in hospi-tality venues where smoking occurs. These field studies of hospitalit
9、y venues in the United States and the United Kingdom was undertaken in order to obtain field data on this relationship. The objectives of these field studies were to evaluate the perfor-mance of mechanical ventilation systems in various types and configurations of hospitality venues in both the Unit
10、ed States and the United Kingdom to determine the effectiveness of these systems in providing acceptable indoor air quality in spaces where smok-ing is allowed. These field studies of six hospitality venues on two continents included ventilation and indoor air quality measure-ments of three casinos,
11、 two pubs and one restaurant. This paper presents measurements of ventilation and indoor air quality including environmental tobacco smoke parameters sampled in several locations within each of the six venues to assess the effectiveness of mechanical ventilation. The indoor air quality measurements
12、included carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, total volatile organic compounds, temper-ature, relative humidity and respirable suspended particles. Measurements were also taken in the outdoor air as a means of comparing outdoor air quality with the indoor air quality. The data from the field studies sho
13、ws that mechanical ventilation is an effective means of providing indoor air quality conditions that are comparable to the outdoor air quality in hospitality venues where smoking is permitted.Field Studies in the United States and United Kingdom of the Effectiveness of Mechanical Ventilation Systems
14、 on Indoor Air Quality in Hospitality Venues where Smoking is Allowed in Relation to Outdoor Air ConditionsElia Sterling Michael GlasscoMember ASHRAEElia Sterling is president and Michael Glassco is operations manager of Theodor Sterling Associates, Vancouver, British Columbia.LO-09-068 2009, Americ
15、an Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (www.ashrae.org). Published in ASHRAE Transactions 2009, vol. 115, part 2. For personal use only. Additional reproduction, distribution, or transmission in either print or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAEs prior wr
16、itten permission.730 ASHRAE TransactionsINTRODUCTION In order to evaluate the effectiveness of mechanical venti-lation in building spaces where smoking is allowed field stud-ies measuring ventilation and indoor air quality in six well-ventilated hospitality venues on two continents were conducted. T
17、he hospitality venues were selected to include a variety of uses and types of mechanical ventilation systems. The field study included three resort casino properties in the United States and two pubs and one restaurant in the United Kingdom. METHODS The field study consisted of:Phase 1 Selection of
18、venuesUnited States VenuesUnited Kingdom VenuesPhase 2 Site testing/assessment in both the United States and the United KingdomPhase 1Selection of VenuesThe purpose of these field studies was the evaluation of indoor air quality in well-ventilated hospitality venues where smoking occurs. The selecti
19、on of venues for inclusion in the field studies of typical hospitality facilities that are well venti-lated was very important. For the North American field study the selection of hospitality venues included the inspection of large casino resort facilities in a variety of locations through-out the U
20、nited States. The geographic locations included: Atlantic City; East Chicago; Las Vegas; Tunica, Mississippi; and Kansas City, Missouri. In the United Kingdom, the selec-tion of hospitality venues included two pubs and a restaurant in Cardiff and London.United States. Through consultation with mecha
21、nical engineering and casino operations personnel, three different casinos were selected to be included in the field study follow-ing an assessment of nine different casinos. During the selec-tion process researchers evaluated the nine casino venues using a checklist including the following paramete
22、rs: Ceiling heightEstimated floor area Carbon dioxide levels and ventilation rateNumber of smokers presentType of ventilation systemTobacco smoke control measures in placeThe primary selection criteria for the three venues to be included in the field study were that they were provided with effective
23、 ventilation by commonly used (not specialized) mechanical systems and that the occupancy and smoking rates were typical of similar casino establishments throughout the United States. Two of the venues selected were located in Las Vegas, Nevada and one of the venues was located in Atlantic City, New
24、 Jersey.Las VegasVenue #1-Purpose Built CasinoThis is a new casino constructed in the late 1990s. The casino has high ceilings and the ventilation rate was also high.Venue #2-Purpose Built CasinoThis facility was originally constructed in the late 1970s with recent major renovations to the casino su
25、bstantially increasing ceiling height and ventila-tion rate.Atlantic CityVenue #3-Purpose Built CasinoOriginally constructed in the late 1970s, the casino received recent major renovations to substantially increase ceiling height and ventilation rate.United Kingdom. In November 2006, researchers con
26、ducted site inspections of a total of twelve United King-dom hospitality venues located in London and Cardiff. The purpose of the site inspections was to select three well-venti-lated hospitality venues where smoking is allowed to be included in the field study. Researchers gathered data on each of
27、the twelve venues using a checklist that included the following:Location (busy street, city, etc.)Type of establishment (pub, restaurant, etc.)Ceiling heightEstimated floor areaCarbon dioxide levels and ventilation rateSeating capacityNumber of smokers presentType of ventilation systemTobacco smoke
28、control measures in placeThree venues were selected for the field study based on the data collected during the site inspections. The primary selection criteria for these venues were that they were provided with effective ventilation by commonly used (not specialized) mechanical systems and that the
29、occupancy and smoking rates were typical of similar hospitality establish-ments throughout the United Kingdom. One of the venues was located in London and two of the venues were located in Cardiff.CardiffVenue #4 - Traditional PubA typical small one-room pub located on the outskirts of Cardiff with
30、seating for approximately 60 people.Venue #5 Newly Renovated Pub/Restaurant This venue is a purpose-built restaurant/pub and is considered an up-scale venue that has undergone extensive renovations and upgrades over the past few years. It is located in the heart of Cardiff on the main ASHRAE Transac
31、tions 731street, which is heavily traveled by automobiles. This venue has a seating capacity of 850.LondonVenue #6 Wine Bar/RestaurantThe venue is an elegant restaurant/wine bar located on the basement level of a building located in central London. The street is quite heavily traveled by auto-mobile
32、s and the restaurant has a seating capacity of approximately 120.Phase 2Site Testing/AssessmentThe benchmarks used by indoor air quality researchers to evaluate indoor air quality in commercial and hospitality envi-ronments are carbon dioxide (metabolic activity and ventila-tion), carbon monoxide (c
33、ombustion byproduct), respirable suspended particles (air cleanliness), temperature and humid-ity (both comfort measurements) (Collett et al 1993; Gammage, et al 1989; Lane et al 1989; Nathanson 1990; Shaw 1988; Sterling et al, 1987a; Sterling et al 1987b). Most researchers evaluating indoor air qua
34、lity in spaces where smoking occurs have used respirable suspended partic-ulate matter (RSP) as a marker for tobacco smoke. RSP is used because it is easy to measure and the equipment to measure RSP is readily available. RSP is generally defined as a particle less than 4 micrometers in size (ISO Sta
35、ndard 7708:1995). Several sampling locations were selected inside each of the hospitality venues. These locations were selected to be representative of occupancy and ventilation. At each of these locations, both instantaneous and integrating air-sampling techniques were utilized. In addition, one ou
36、tdoor location was selected as representative of ambient conditions.Sampling was conducted for the following parameters both indoors and outdoors (in order to be representative of street level exposure for comparison to indoor locations outdoor sample locations were selected immediately outside the
37、front doors of the venue and not necessarily near the outdoor air intake for the mechanical ventilation systems):Carbon dioxide (CO2)Carbon monoxide (CO)Temperature and relative humidityRespirable suspended particulate matter (RSP) During the part of the field study in the United Kingdom, instantane
38、ous air quality measurements for the indoor air qual-ity parameters noted above were collected at one-hour inter-vals over the course of the 8-hour sampling day at each indoor location and the one outdoor location. The sampling duration was slightly different for the casino venues located in the Uni
39、ted States to account for the facilities 24/7 operation and occupancy. During the United States part of the field study, the same instantaneous air quality measurements were collected as in the United Kingdom. However the samples were collected during three separate eight hour sampling periods evenl
40、y spread over a 24-hour period. During each sampling period, measurements were collected from locations across each venue which were representative for the entire facility with respect to occupancy and ventilation. Measurements were collected with the following instru-mentation.Carbon dioxide (CO2),
41、 temperature, relative humid-ity and carbon monoxide (CO) were measured with an instrument called a TSI Q-Trak. The Q-Trak has the following specifications:Respirable Suspended Particulate Matter (RSP) was measured using a TSI Inc. forward light scattering DustTrak aerosol monitor. The cyclone attac
42、hment was in place for the RSP measurements. The sensor is a 90olight scattering laser diode sensor that has a range of 1 to 100,000 micrograms per cubic meter of air (g/m3) and a resolution of +/- 0.1% of the reading or +/- 1 g/m3, whichever is greater.Indoor air quality research has shown that Dus
43、trak measurements tend to overestimate indoor particle levels when compared to the traditional and accepted gravimetric sampling and analytical method (Cenko et al 2004). Research showing the need for the application of a correc-tion factor for the Dustrak includes Heal, Beverland, et. al, 2000, Edw
44、ards, et al. 2006 and Jenkins 2004 (Heal et al 2000, Edwards et al 2006, Jenkins et al 2004). This research shows that the Dustrak overestimates particle levels when compared to gravimetric sampling techniques by factors ranging from 2 to 3.24.The Dustrak is factory calibrated to the standard ISO 12
45、103-1, A1 test dust (formerly Arizona Test Dust). This stan-dard test dust is used because of its wide particle size distri-bution (Model 8520 Dustrak Operation and Service Manual). Because of the potential for the instrument to overestimate dust differing in type and composition from the factory ca
46、li-bration standard the Operation and Service Manual sets forth a method to determine an applicable correction factor for specific aerosols. A correction factor for this field study was calculated based on the method presented in the Operation and Service Manual for the Dustrak. The correction facto
47、r was calculated using data from ten other indoor air quality investigations conducted by the authors that included 101 comparable data points where both gravimetric RSP data and Dustrak RSP measurements were acquired side-by-side in smoking-permitted environments. These data are stored on a proprie
48、tary relational database of Sensor Sensor Type Range ResolutionCarbon dioxideNon-dispersive infrared0 to 5000 ppm* 1 ppm*Temperature Thermistor32 to 122oF*0 to 50C*0.1oF*0.05C*Relative humidityThin-film capacitive5 to 95%* 0.1%*Carbon monoxideElectro-chemical 0 to 500 ppm 0.1 ppm*ppm = parts per mil
49、lion; oF = Fahrenheit; C = Celsius; % = percentage.732 ASHRAE Transactionsbuilding performance and IAQ research measurements taken in various types of buildings by the authors. The database is a component of a field research project involving the experi-mental development of indoor air quality and control system technologies (Pinchevsky and Company 2007 and Collett, C.W. et. al. 1987). The database enables the analysis of multi-ple datapoints collected in multiple buildings. From these data and comparison of side-by-side sampling results (Dustrak and gravimetric sampling
