1、大学英语六级改革适用（阅读）模拟试卷 19及答案与解析 Section B 0 Obtaining Linguistic Data A)Many procedures are available for obtaining data about a language. They range from a carefully planned, intensive field investigation in a foreign country to a casual introspection about one s mother tongue carried out in an armchai
2、r at home. B)In all cases, someone has to act as a source of language data an informant. Informants are(ideally)native speakers of a language, who provide utterances for analysis and other kinds of information about the language(e.g. translations, comments about correctness, or judgements on usage).
3、 C)Often, when studying their mother tongue, linguists act as their own informants, judging the ambiguity, acceptability, or other properties of utterances against their own intuitions. The convenience of this approach makes it widely used, and it is considered the norm in the generative approach to
4、 linguistics. D)But a linguist s personal judgements are often uncertain, or disagree with the judgements of other linguists, at which point resource is needed to more object methods of enquiry, using non-linguists as informants. The later procedure is unavoidable when working on foreign languages,
5、or child speech. E)Many factors must be considered when selecting informants whether one is working with single speakers(a common situation when languages have not been described before), two people interacting, small groups or large-scale samples. Age, sex, social background and other aspects of id
6、entity are important, as these factors are known to influence the kind of language used. F)The topic of conversation and the characteristics of the social setting(e.g. the level of formality)are also highly relevant, as are the personal qualities of the informants(e.g. their fluency and consistency)
7、. For larger studies, scrupulous attention has been paid to the sampling theory employed, and in all cases, decisions have to be made about the best investigative techniques to use. G)Today, researchers often tape-record informants. This enables the linguists claims about the language to be checked,
8、 and provides a way of making those claims more accurate(“difficult“ pieces of speech can be listened to repeatedly). H)But obtaining naturalistic, good-quality data is never easy. People talk abnormally when they know they are being recorded, and sound quality can be poor. A variety of tape-recordi
9、ng procedures have thus been devised to minimise the “observers paradox“(how to observe the way people behave when they are not being observed). I)Some recordings are made without the speakers being aware of the fact a procedure that obtains very natural data, though ethical objections must be antic
10、ipated. Alternatively, attempts can be made to make the speaker forget about the recording, such as keeping the tape recorder out of sight, or using radio microphones. A useful technique is to introduce a topic that quickly involves the speaker, and stimulates a natural language style(e.g. asking ol
11、der informants about how times have changed in their locality). J)An audio tape recording does not solve all the linguists problems, however. Speech is often unclear and ambiguous. Where possible, therefore, the recording has to be supplements by the observers written comments on the non-verbal beha
12、viour of the participants, and about the context in general. K)A facial expression, for example, can dramatically alter the meaning of what is said. Video recordings avoid these problems to a large extent, but even they have limitations(the camera cannot be everywhere), and transcription always bene
13、fits from any additional commentary provided by an observer. L)Linguists also make great use of structured sessions, in which they systematically ask their informants for utterances that describe certain actions, objects or behaviours. With a bilingual informant, or though use of an interpreter, it
14、is possible to use translation technique(How do you say table in your language?). M)A large number of points can be covered in a short time, using interview work-sheets and questionnaires. Often, the researcher wishes to obtain information about just a single variable, in which case a restricted set
15、 of questions may be used: a particular feature of pronunciation, for example, can be elicited by asking the informant to say a restricted set of words. There are also several direct methods of elicitation, such as asking informants to fill in the blanks in a substitution frame(e.g. “I_see a car.“),
16、 or feeding them the wrong stimulus for correction(“Is it possible to say I no can see?“). N)A representative sample of language, complied for the purpose of linguistic analysis, is known as a corpus. A corpus enables the linguist to make unbiased statements about frequency of usage, and it provides
17、 accessible data for the use of different researchers. Its range and size are variable. Some corpora attempt to cover the language as a whole, taking extracts from many kinds of text; others are extremely selective, providing a collection of material that deals only with a particular linguistic feat
18、ure. O)The size of the corpus depends on practical factors, such as the time available to collect, process and store the data: it can take up to several hours to provide an accurate transcription of a few minutes of speech. Sometimes a small sample of data will be enough to decide a linguistic hypot
19、hesis; by contrast, corpora in major research projects can total millions of words. An important principle is that all corpora, whatever their size, are inevitably limited in their coverage, and always need to be supplemented by data derived from the intuitions of native speakers of the language, th
20、ough either introspection or experimentation. 1 Some recordings are made without the speakers being aware of the fact, thus informants are less self-conscious. 2 Non-linguists as informants are necessary when working on foreign languages and child speech. 3 Video recordings help to observe speakers
21、facial expression. 4 The language of the informants is influenced by social situation. 5 No corpus can ever cover the whole language and so linguists often find themselves relying on the additional information that can be gained from the intuitions of whose who speak the language concerned. 6 A ling
22、uist can use a corpus to comment objectively on frequency of usage. 7 Convenience is an advantage for linguists who work as informants. 8 Taking notes on body language supplements audio tape recording. 9 Recording an informant allows linguists claims to be checked. 10 Interview work-sheets and quest
23、ionnaires can be used to generate specific data. 10 The History of Early Cinema A)The history of the cinema in its first thirty years is one of major and, to this day, unparalleled expansion and growth. Beginning as something unusual in a handful of big cities New York, London, Paris and Berlin the
24、new medium quickly found its way across the world, attracting larger and larger audiences wherever it was shown and replacing other forms of entertainment as it did so. B)As audiences grew, so did the places where films were shown, finishing up with the “great picture palaces“ of the 1920s, which ri
25、valled, and occasionally superseded, theatres and opera-houses in terms of opulence and splendour. Meanwhile, films themselves developed from being short “attractions“ only a couple of minutes long, to the full-length feature that has dominated the world s screens up to the present day. C)Although F
26、rench, German, American and British pioneers have all been credited with the invention of cinema, the British and the Germans played a relatively small role in its world-wide exploitation. It was above all the French, followed closely by the Americans, who were the most passionate exporters of the n
27、ew invention, helping to start cinema in China, Japan, Latin America and Russia. In terms of artistic development it was again the French and the Americans who took the lead, though in the years before the First World War, Italy, Denmark and Russia also played a part. D)In the end, it was the United
28、 States that was to become, and remain, the largest single market for films. By protecting their own market and pursuing a vigorous export policy, the Americans achieved a dominant position on the world market by the start of the First World War. The centre of film-making had moved westwards, to Hol
29、lywood, and it was films from these new Hollywood studios that flooded onto the world s film markets in the years after the First World War, and have done so ever since. E)Faced with total Hollywood domination, few film industries proved competitive. The Italian industry, which had pioneered the fea
30、ture film with spectacular films like Quo vadis(1913)and Cabiria(1914), almost collapsed. In Scandinavia, the Swedish cinema had a brief period of glory, notably with powerful epic films and comedies. Even the French cinema found itself in a difficult position. In Europe, only Germany proved industr
31、ially capable, while in the new Soviet Union and in Japan the development of the cinema took place in conditions of commercial isolation. F)Hollywood took the lead artistically as well as industrially. Hollywood films appealed because they had better-constructed narratives, their special effects wer
32、e more impressive, and the star system added a new dimension to screen acting. G)If Hollywood did not have enough of its own resources, it had a great deal of money to buy up artists and technical innovations from Europe to ensure its continued dominance over present or future competition. H)The res
33、t of the world survived partly by learning from Hollywood and partly because audiences continued to exist for a product which corresponded to needs which Hollywood could not supply. As well as popular audiences, there were also increasing audiences for films which were artistically more adventurous
34、or which dealt with the issues in the outer world. I)None of this would have happened without technology, and cinema is in fact unique as an art form. In the early years, this art form was quite primitive, similar to the original French idea of using a lantern and slides back in the seventeenth cent
35、ury. Early cinema programmes were a mixture of items, combining comic sketches, free-standing narratives, serial episodes and the occasional trick or animated film. J)With the arrival of the feature-length narrative as the main attraction, other types of films became less important. The making of ca
36、rtoons became a separate branch of film-making, generally practised outside the major studios, and the same was true of serials. Together with newsreels, they tended to be shown as short items in a programme which led to the feature. K)From early cinema, it was only American slapstick comedy that su
37、ccessfully developed in both short and feature format. However, during this “Silent Film“ era, animation, comedy, serials and dramatic features continued to thrive, along with factual films or documentaries, which acquired an increasing distinctiveness as the period progressed. L)It was also at this
38、 time that the avant-garde film first achieved commercial success, this time thanks almost exclusively to the French and the occasional German film. M)Of the countries which developed and maintained distinctive national cinemas in the silent period, the most important were France, Germany and the So
39、viet Union. Of these, the French displayed the most continuity, in spite of the war and post-war economic uncertainties. The German cinema, relatively insignificant in the pre-war years, exploded on to the world scene after 1919. Yet even they were both overshadowed by the Soviets after the 1917 Rev
40、olution. They turned their back on the past, leaving the style of the pre-war Russian cinema to the emigres who fled westwards to escape the Revolution. N)The other countries whose cinemas changed dramatically are: Britain, which had an interesting but undistinguished history in the silent period; I
41、taly, which had a brief moment of international fame just before the war; the Scandinavian countries, particularly Denmark, which played a role in the development of silent cinema quite out of proportion to their small population; and Japan, where a cinema developed based primarily on traditional th
42、eatrical and, to a lesser extent, other art forms and only gradually adapted to western influence. 11 France helped some other countries develop their own film industry. 12 Cartoons and serials were not generally made in major studios. 13 The rest of the film industry exists partially because of the
43、 experience they draw on from Hollywood and partially because of their unique ability to satisfy the need of audiences. 14 Japan made movies based more on its own culture than outside influences. 15 Italy was the first to develop the feature film. 16 America developed slapstick comedy in both short
44、and feature films. 17 In the 1920s, cinema was an entertainment as favorable as theatres and opera-houses. 18 One attraction of Hollywood films is the large number of super stars it creates. 19 France made the most money from avant-garde film. 20 America was and still is the biggest producer of film
45、s in the world. 20 Micro-Enterprise Credit for Street Youth A)Although small-scale business training and credit programs have become more common throughout the world, relatively little attention has been paid to the need to direct such opportunities to young people. Even less attention has been paid
46、 to children living on the street or in difficult circumstance. B)Over the past nine years, Street Kids International(S.K.I.)has been working with partner organizations in Africa, Latin America and India to support the economic lives of street children. The purpose of this paper is to share some of
47、the lessons S.K.I and our partners have learned. C)Typically, children do not end up on the streets due to a single cause, but to a combination of factors: a dearth of adequately funded schools, the demand for income at home, family breakdown and violence. The street may be attractive to children as
48、 a place to find adventurous play and money. However, it is also a place where some children are exposed, with little or no protection, to exploitative employment, urban crime, and abuse. D)Children who work on the streets are generally involved in unskilled, labour-intensive tasks which require lon
49、g hours, such as shining shoes, carrying goods, guarding or washing cars, and informal trading. Some may also earn income through begging, or through theft and other illegal activities. At the same time, there are street children who take pride in supporting themselves and their families and who often enjoy their work. Many children may choose entrepreneurship because it allows them a degree of independence, is less exploitative than many forms of paid-employment, and is flexible enough to allow them to participate in other activities such as
