1、雅思（阅读）历年真题试卷汇编 15及答案与解析 0 REVIEW OF RESEARCH ON THE EFFECTS OF FOOD PROMOTION TO CHILDREN This review was commissioned by the Food Standards Agency to examine the current research evidence on: the extent and nature of food promotion to children the effect, if any, that this promotion has on their fo
2、od knowledge, preferences and behaviour. A Childrens food promotion is dominated by television advertising, and the great majority of this promotes the so-called Big Four of pre-sugared breakfast cereals, soft-drinks, confectionary and savoury snacks. In the last ten years advertising for fast food
3、outlets has rapidly increased. There is some evidence that the dominance of television has recently begun to wane. The importance of strong, global branding reinforces a need for multi-faceted communications combining television with merchandising, tie-ins and point of sale activity. The advertised
4、diet contrasts sharply with that recommended by public health advisors, and themes of fun and fantasy or taste, rather than health and nutrition, are used to promote it to children. Meanwhile, the recommended diet gets little promotional support. B There is plenty of evidence that children notice an
5、d enjoy food promotion. However, establishing whether this actually influences them is a complex problem. The review tackled it by looking at studies that had examined possible effects on what children know about food, their food preferences, their actual food behaviour(both buying and eating), and
6、their health outcomes(eg. obesity or cholesterol levels). The majority of studies examined food advertising, but a few examined other forms of food promotion. In terms of nutritional knowledge, food advertising seems to have little influence on childrens general perceptions of what constitutes a hea
7、lthy diet, but, in certain contexts, it does have an effect on more specific types of nutritional knowledge. For example, seeing soft drink and cereal adverts reduced primary aged childrens ability to determine correctly whether or not certain products contained real fruit. C The review also found e
8、vidence that food promotion influences childrens food preferences and their purchase behaviour. A study of primary school children, for instance, found that exposure to advertising influenced which foods they claimed to like; and another showed that labelling and signage on a vending machine had an
9、effect on what was bought by secondary school pupils. A number of studies have also shown that food advertising can influence what children eat. One, for example, showed that advertising influenced a primary classs choice of daily snack at playtime. D The next step, of trying to establish whether or
10、 not a link exists between food promotion and diet or obesity, is extremely difficult as it requires research to be done in real world settings. A number of studies have attempted this by using amount of television viewing as a proxy for exposure to television advertising. They have established a cl
11、ear link between television viewing and diet, obesity, and cholesterol levels. It is impossible to say, however, whether this effect is caused by the advertising, the sedentary nature of television viewing or snacking that might take place whilst viewing. One study resolved this problem by taking a
12、detailed diary of childrens viewing habits. This showed that the more food adverts they saw, the more snacks and calories they consumed. E Thus the literature does suggest food promotion is influencing childrens diet in a number of ways. This does not amount to proof; as noted above with this kind o
13、f research, incontrovertible proof simply isnt attainable. Nor do all studies point to this conclusion; several have not found an effect. In addition, very few studies have attempted to measure how strong these effects are relative to other factors influencing childrens food choices. Nonetheless, ma
14、ny studies have found clear effects and they have used sophisticated methodologies that make it possible to determine that i)these effects are not just due to chance; ii)they are independent of other factors that may influence diet, such as parents eating habits or attitudes; and iii)they occur at a
15、 brand and category level. F Furthermore, two factors suggest that these findings actually downplay the effect that food promotion has on children. First, the literature focuses principally on television advertising; the cumulative effect of this combined with other forms of promotion and marketing
16、is likely to be significantly greater. Second, the studies have looked at direct effects on individual children, and understate indirect influences. For example, promotion for fast food outlets may not only influence the child, but also encourage parents to take them for meals and reinforce the idea
17、 that this is a normal and desirable behaviour. G This does not amount to proof of an effect, but in our view does provide sufficient evidence to conclude that an effect exists. The debate should now shift to what action is needed, and specifically to how the power of commercial marketing can be use
18、d to bring about improvements in young peoples eating. You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 1-13, which are based on Reading Passage 1 on the following pages. Questions 1-7 Reading Passage 1 has seven paragraphs, A-G. Choose the most suitable heading for paragraphs A-G from the list of hea
19、dings below. Write the appropriate number, i-x, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet. List of Headings i General points of agreements and disagreements of researchers ii How much children really know about food iii Need to take action iv Advertising effects of the “Big Four“ v Connection of advertising
20、 and childrens weight problems vi Evidence that advertising affects what children buy to eat vii How parents influence childrens eating habits viii Advertisings focus on unhealthy options ix Children often buy what they want x Underestimating the effects advertising has on children 1 Paragraph A 2 p
21、aragraph B 3 Paragraph C 4 Paragraph D 5 Paragraph E 6 Paragraph F 7 Paragraph G 7 Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage 1? In boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet, write YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer NO if the statement contradicts w
22、ith the views of the writer NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this 8 There is little difference between the number of healthy food advertisements and the number of unhealthy food advertisements. （ A） Yes （ B） No （ C） Not Given 9 TV advertising has successfully taught
23、children nutritional knowledge about vitamins and others. （ A） Yes （ B） No （ C） Not Given 10 It is hard to decide which aspect of TV viewing has caused weight problems of children. （ A） Yes （ B） No （ C） Not Given 11 The preference of food for children is affected by their age and gender. （ A） Yes （
24、B） No （ C） Not Given 12 Wealthy parents tend to buy more “sensible food“ for their children. （ A） Yes （ B） No （ C） Not Given 13 There is a lack of investigation on food promotion methods other than TV advertising. （ A） Yes （ B） No （ C） Not Given 13 You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 14-2
25、6, which are based on Reading Passage 2 below. THE BRIDGE THAT SWAYED When the London Millennium footbridge was opened in June 2000, it swayed alarmingly. This generated huge public interest and the bridge became known as Londons “wobbly bridge.“ The Millennium Bridge is the first new bridge across
26、the river Thames in London since Tower Bridge opened in 1894, and it is the first ever designed for pedestrians only. The bridge links the City of London near St Rauls Cathedral with the Tate Modem art gallery on Bankside. The bridge opened initially on Saturday 10th June 2000. For the opening cerem
27、ony, a crowd of over 1,000 people had assembled on the south half of the bridge with a band in front. When they started to walk across with the band playing, there was immediately an unexpectedly pronounced lateral movement of the bridge deck. “It was a fine day and the bridge was on the route of a
28、major charity walk,“ one of the pedestrians recounted what he saw that day. “At first, it was still. Then it began to sway sideways, just slightly. Then, almost from one moment to the next, when large groups of people were crossing, the wobble intensified. Everyone had to stop walking to retain bala
29、nce and sometimes to hold onto the hand rails for support.“ Immediately it was decided to limit the number of people on the bridge, and the bridge was dubbed the wobbly bridge by the media who declared it another high-profile British Millennium Project failure. In order to fully investigate and reso
30、lve the issue the decision was taken to close the bridge on 12th June 2000. Arup, the leading member of the committee in charge of the construction of the bridge, decided to tackle the issue head on. They immediately undertook a fast-track research project to seek the cause and the cure. The embarra
31、ssed engineers found the videotape that day which showed the center span swaying about 3 inches sideways every second and the south span 2 inches every 1.25 seconds. Because there was a significant wind blowing on the opening days(force 3-4)and the bridge had been decorated with large flags, the eng
32、ineers first thought that winds might be exerting excessive force on the many large flags and banners, but it was rapidly concluded that wind buffeting had not contributed significantly to vibration of the bridge. But after measurements were made in university laboratories of the effects of people w
33、alking on swaying platforms and after large-scale experiments with crowds of pedestrians were conducted on the bridge itself, a new understanding and a new theory were developed. The unexpected motion was the result of a natural human reaction to small lateral movements. It is well known that a susp
34、ension bridge has tendency to sway when troops march over it in lockstep, which is why troops are required to break step when crossing such a bridge. “If we walk on a swaying surface we tend to compensate and stabilise ourselves by spreading our legs further apart-but this increases the lateral push
35、“. Pat Dallard, the engineer at Arup, says that you change the way you walk to match what the bridge is doing. It is an unconscious tendency for pedestrians to match their footsteps to the sway, thereby exacerbating it even more. “Its rather like walking on a rolling ship deck-you move one way and t
36、hen the other to compensate for the roll.“ The way people walk doesnt have to match exactly the natural frequency of the bridge as in resonance-the interaction is more subtle. As the bridge moves, people adjust the way they walk in their own manner. The problem is that when there are enough people o
37、n the bridge the total sideways push can overcome the bridges ability to absorb it. The movement becomes excessive and continues to increase until people begin to have difficulty in walking-they may even have to hold on to the rails. Professor Fujino Yozo of Tokyo University, who studied the earth-r
38、esistant Toda Bridge in Japan, believes the horizontal forces caused by walking, running or jumping could also in turn cause excessive dynamic vibration in the lateral direction in the bridge. He explains that as the structure began moving, pedestrians adjusted their gait to the same lateral rhythm
39、as the bridge; the adjusted footsteps magnified the motion-just like when four people all stand up in small boat at the same time. As more pedestrians locked into the same rhythm, the increasing oscillation led to the dramatic swaying captured on film until people stopped walking altogether, because
40、 they could not even keep upright. In order to design a method of reducing the movements, an immediate research program was launched by the bridges engineering designer Arup. It was decided that the force exerted by the pedestrians had to be quantified and related to the motion of the bridge. Althou
41、gh there are some descriptions of this phenomenon in existing literature, none of these actually quantifies the force. So there was no quantitative analytical way to design the bridge against this effect. The efforts to solve the problem quickly got supported by a number of universities and research
42、 organisations. The tests at the University of Southampton involved a person walking on the spot on a small shake table. The tests at Imperial College involved persons walking along a specially built, 7.2m-long platform, which could be driven laterally at different frequencies and amplitudes. These
43、tests have their own limitations. While the Imperial College test platform was too short that only seven or eight steps could be measured at one time, the “walking on the spot“ test did not accurately replicate forward walking, although many footsteps could be observed using this method. Neither tes
44、t could investigate any influence of other people in a crowd on the behavior of the individual tested. The results of the laboratory tests provided information which enabled the initial design of a retrofit to be progressed. However, unless the usage of the bridge was to be greatly restricted, only
45、two generic options to improve its performance were considered feasible. The first was to increase the stiffness of the bridge to move all its lateral natural frequencies out of the range that could be excited by the lateral footfall forces, and the second was to increase the damping of the bridge t
46、o reduce the resonant response. Questions 14-17 Choose FOUR letters, A-I. Write the correct letters in boxes 14-17 on your answer sheet. Which FOUR of the following could be seen on the day when the bridge opened to the public? A the bridge moved vertically B the bridge swayed from side to side C th
47、e bridge swayed violently throughout the opening ceremony D it was hard to keep balance on the bridge E pedestrians walked in synchronised steps F pedestrians lengthened their footsteps G a music band marched across the bridge H the swaying rhythm varied to the portions of the bridge I flags and ban
48、ners kept still on the bridge 17 Complete the summary below. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 18-23 on your answer sheet. To understand why the Millennium Bridge swayed, engineers of Arup studied the videotape taken on the day of the opening
49、 ceremony. In the beginning they thought the forces of【 R1】 _might have caused the movement because there were many flags and banners on the bridge that day. But quickly new understandings arose after series of tests were conducted on how people walk on【 R2】 _ floors. The tests showed people would place their legs【 R3】 _to keep balance when the floor is shaking. Pat Dallard even believes pedestrians may unknowingly adjust their【 R4】 _to match the sway of the bridge. Professor Fujino Yozos study found that the vibration of a bridge could be caused b
