1、Designation: E181 10Standard Test Methods forDetector Calibration and Analysis of Radionuclides1This standard is issued under the fixed designation E181; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A
2、number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 These methods cover general procedures for the cali-bration of radiation detectors and the analysis of radionuclides.For each individua
3、l radionuclide, one or more of these methodsmay apply.1.2 These methods are concerned only with specific radio-nuclide measurements. The chemical and physical propertiesof the radionuclides are not within the scope of this standard.1.3 The measurement standards appear in the followingorder:SectionsS
4、pectroscopy Methods:Calibration and Usage of Germa-nium Detectors 3-12Calibration and Usage of ScintillationDetector Systems: 13-20Calibration and Usage of ScintillationDetectors for Simple Spectra 16Calibration and Usage of ScintillationSectionsDetectors for Complex Spectra 17Counting Methods:Beta
5、Particle Counting 25-26Aluminum Absorption Curve 27-31Alpha Particle Counting 32-39Liquid Scintillation Counting 40-481.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded asstandard. No other units of measurement are included in thisstandard.1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of thesa
6、fety problems, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Document2.1 ASTM Standards:2E170 Terminology Relating to Ra
7、diation Measurements andDosimetrySPECTROSCOPY METHODS3. Terminology3.1 Definitions:3.1.1 certified radioactivity standard sourcea calibratedradioactive source, with stated accuracy, whose calibration iscertified by the source supplier as traceable to the NationalRadioactivity Measurements System (1)
8、.33.1.2 check sourcea radioactivity source, not necessarilycalibrated, that is used to confirm the continuing satisfactoryoperation of an instrument.3.1.3 FWHM(full width at half maximum) the full widthof a gamma-ray peak distribution measured at half the maxi-mum ordinate above the continuum.3.1.4
9、national radioactivity standard sourcea calibratedradioactive source prepared and distributed as a standardreference material by the U.S. National Institute of Standardsand Technology.3.1.5 resolution, gamma raythe measured FWHM, afterbackground subtraction, of a gamma-ray peak distribution,expresse
10、d in units of energy.3.2 Abbreviations:Abbreviations:3.2.1 MCAMultichannel Analyzer.3.2.2 SCASingle Channel Analyzer.3.2.3 ROIRegion-Of-Interest.3.3 For other relevant terms, see Terminology E170.3.4 correlated photon summingthe simultaneous detec-tion of two or more photons originating from a singl
11、e nucleardisintegration.1These methods are under the jurisdiction ofASTM Committee E10 on NuclearTechnology and Applications .Current edition approved Jan. 1, 2010. Published February 2010. Originallyapproved in 1961. Last previous edition approved in 2003 as E181 98(2003). DOI:10.1520/E0181-10.2For
12、 referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of referen
13、ces at the end ofthese methods.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.3.5 dead timethe time after a triggering pulse duringwhich the system is unable to retrigger.NOTE 1The terms “standard source” and “radioactivity standard
14、” aregeneral terms used to refer to the sources and standards of NationalRadioactivity Standard Source and Certified Radioactivity StandardSource.CALIBRATION AND USAGE OF GERMANIUMDETECTORS4. Scope4.1 This standard establishes methods for calibration, usage,and performance testing of germanium detec
15、tors for themeasurement of gamma-ray emission rates of radionuclides. Itcovers the energy and full-energy peak efficiency calibration aswell as the determination of gamma-ray energies in the 0.06 to2-MeV energy region and is designed to yield gamma-rayemission rates with an uncertainty of 63 % (see
16、Note 2). Thismethod applies primarily to measurements that do not involveoverlapping peaks, and in which peak-to-continuum consider-ations are not important.NOTE 2Uncertainty U is given at the 68 % confidence level; that is,U 5 =(si21 1/3(di2where diare the estimated maximum system-atic uncertaintie
17、s, and siare the random uncertainties at the 68 %confidence level (2). Other methods of error analysis are in use (3, 4).5. Apparatus5.1 A typical gamma-ray spectrometry system consists of agermanium detector (with its liquid nitrogen cryostat, pream-plifier, and possibly a high-voltage filter) in c
18、onjunction with adetector bias supply, linear amplifier, multichannel analyzer,and data readout device, for example, a printer, plotter,oscilloscope, or computer. Gamma rays interact with thedetector to produce pulses which are analyzed and counted bythe supportive electronics system.6. Summary of M
19、ethods6.1 The purpose of these methods is to provide a standard-ized basis for the calibration and usage of germanium detectorsfor measurement of gamma-ray emission rates of radionu-clides. The method is intended for use by knowledgeablepersons who are responsible for the development of correctproce
20、dures for the calibration and usage of germanium detec-tors.6.2 A source emission rate for a gamma ray of a selectedenergy is determined from the counting rate in a full-energypeak of a spectrum, together with the measured efficiency ofthe spectrometry system for that energy and source location. Iti
21、s usually not possible to measure the efficiency directly withemission-rate standards at all desired energies. Therefore acurve or function is constructed to permit interpolation be-tween available calibration points.7. Preparation of Apparatus7.1 Follow the manufacturers instructions for setting up
22、and preliminary testing of the equipment. Observe all of themanufacturers limitations and cautions. All tests described inSection 12 should be performed before starting the calibra-tions, and all corrections shall be made when required.Achecksource should be used to check the stability of the system
23、 atleast before and after the calibration.8. Calibration Procedure8.1 Energy CalibrationDetermine the energy calibration(channel number versus gamma-ray energy) of the detectorsystem at a fixed gain by determining the channel numberscorresponding to full energy peak centroids from gamma raysemitted
24、over the full energy range of interest from multipeakedor multinuclide radioactivity sources, or both. Determinenonlinearity correction factors as necessary (5).8.1.1 Using suitable gamma-ray compilations (6-14), plot orfit to an appropriate mathematical function the values for peakcentroid (in chan
25、nels) versus gamma energy.8.2 Effciency Calibration:8.2.1 Accumulate an energy spectrum using calibrated ra-dioactivity standards at a desired and reproducible source-to-detector distance. At least 20 000 net counts should beaccumulated in each full-energy gamma-ray peak of interestusing National or
26、 Certified Radioactivity Standard Sources, orboth (see 12.1, 12.5, and 12.6).8.2.2 For each standard source, obtain the net count rate(total count rate of region of interest minus the Comptoncontinuum count rate and, if applicable, the ambient back-ground count rate within the same region) in the fu
27、ll-energygamma-ray peak, or peaks, using a tested method that providesconsistent results (see 12.2, 12.3, and 12.4).8.2.3 Correct the standard source emission rate for decay tothe count time of 8.2.2.8.2.4 Calculate the full-energy peak efficiency, Ef, as fol-lows:Ef5NpNg(1)where:Ef= full-energy pea
28、k efficiency (counts per gamma rayemitted),Np= net gamma-ray count in the full-energy peak (countsper second live time) (Note 3) (see 8.2.2), andNg= gamma-ray emission rate (gamma rays per second).NOTE 3Any other unit of time is acceptable provided it is usedconsistently throughout.8.2.5 There are m
29、any ways of calculating the net gamma-ray count. The method presented here is a valid, commonmethod when there are no interferences from photopeaksadjacent to the peak of interest, and when the continuum varieslinearly from one side of the peak to the other.8.2.5.1 Other net peak area calculation me
30、thods can also beused for single peaks, and must be used when there isinterference from adjacent peaks, or when the continuum doesnot behave linearly. Other methods are acceptable, if they areused in a consistent manner and have been verified to provideaccurate results.8.2.5.2 Using a simple model,
31、the net peak area for a singlepeak can be calculated as follows:NA5 Gs2 B 2 I (2)where:E181 102Gs= gross count in the peak region-of-interest (ROI) in thesample spectrum,B = continuum, andI = number of counts in the background peak (if there isno background peak, or if a background subtraction isnot
32、 performed, I = 0).8.2.5.3 The net gamma-ray count, Npis related to the netpeak area as follows:Np5NATs(3)where Ts= spectrum live time.8.2.5.4 The continuum, B, is calculated from the samplespectrum using the following equation (see Fig. 1):B 5N2nB1s1 B2s! (4)where:N = number of channels in the peak
33、 ROI,n = number of continuum channels on each side,4B1s= sum of counts in the low-energy continuum region inthe sample spectrum, andB2s= sum of counts in the high-energy continuum regionin the sample spectrum.NOTE 4These equations assume that the channels that are used tocalculate the continuum do n
34、ot overlap with the peak ROI, and areadjacent to it, or have the same size gap between the two regions on bothsides.Adifferent equation must be used, if the gaps are of a different size.The peaked background, I, is calculated from a separatebackground measurement using the following equation:I 5TsTb
35、Ib(5)where:Ts= live time of the sample spectrum,Tb= live time of the background spectrum, andIb= net background peak area in the background spec-trum.If a separate background measurement exists, the net back-ground peak area is calculated from the following equation:Ib5 Gb2 Bb(6)where:Gb= sum of gro
36、ss counts in the background peak region(of the background spectrum), andBb= continuum counts in the background peak region (ofthe background spectrum).The continuum counts in the background spectrum arecalculated from the following equation:Bb5N2nB1b1 B2b! (7)where:N = number of channels in the back
37、ground peak ROI,n = number of continuum channels on each side (as-sumed to be the same on both sides),B1b= sum of counts in the low-energy continuum region inthe background spectrum, andB2b= sum of counts in the high-energy continuum regionin the background spectrum.8.2.5.5 If the standard source is
38、 calibrated in units ofBecquerels, the gamma-ray emission rate is given byNg5 APg(8)where:A = number of nuclear decays per second, andPg= probability per nuclear decay for the gamma ray(7-14).8.2.6 Plot, or fit to an appropriate mathematical function,the values for full-energy peak efficiency (deter
39、mined in 8.2.4)versus gamma-ray energy (see 12.5) (15-23).9. Measurement of Gamma-Ray Emission Rate of theSample9.1 Place the sample to be measured at the source-to-detector distance used for efficiency calibration (see 12.6).9.1.1 Accumulate the gamma-ray spectrum, recording thecount duration.9.1.2
40、 Determine the energy of the gamma rays present byuse of the energy calibration obtained under, and at the samegain as 8.1.9.1.3 Obtain the net count rate in each full-energy gamma-ray peak of interest as described in 8.2.2.9.1.4 Determine the full-energy peak efficiency for eachenergy of interest f
41、rom the curve or function obtained in 8.2.5.9.1.5 Calculate the number of gamma rays emitted per unitlive time for each full-energy peak as follows:Ng5NpEf(9)4For simplicity of these calculations, n is assumed to be the same on both sidesof the peak. If the continuum is calculated using a different
42、number of channels onthe left of the peak than on the right of the peak, different equations must be used.FIG. 1 Typical Spectral Peak With Parameters Used in the PeakArea Determination IndicatedE181 103When calculating a nuclear transmutation rate from agamma-ray emission rate determined for a spec
43、ific radionu-clide, a knowledge of the gamma-ray probability per decay isrequired (7-14), that is,A 5NgPg(10)9.1.6 Calculate the net peak area uncertainty as follows:SNA5Gs1SN2nD2B1s1 B2s! 1STsTbD2SIb!2(11)where:SIb5Gb1SN2nD2B1b1 B2b! (12)andSNA= net peak area uncertainty (at 1s confidence level),Gs
44、= gross counts in the peak ROI of the sample spec-trum,Gb= gross counts in the peak ROI of the backgroundspectrum,N = number of channels in the peak ROI,n = number of continuum channels on each side (as-sumed to be the same on both sides for theseequations to be valid),B1s= continuum counts left of
45、the peak ROI in the samplespectrum,B2s= continuum counts right of the peak ROI in thesample spectrum,B1b= continuum counts left of the peak ROI in thebackground spectrum,B2b= continuum counts right of the peak ROI in thebackground spectrum,Ts= live time of the sample spectrum, andTb= live time of th
46、e background spectrum.If there is no separate background measurement, or if nobackground subtract is performed, SIb=0.9.1.7 For other sources of error, see Section 11.10. Performance Testing10.1 The following system tests should be performed on aregularly scheduled basis (or, if infrequently used, p
47、recedingthe use of the system). The frequency for performing each testwill depend on the stability of the particular system as well ason the accuracy and reliability of the required results. Wherehealth or safety is involved, much more frequent checking maybe appropriate. A range of typical frequenc
48、ies for noncriticalapplications is given below for each test.10.1.1 Check the system energy calibration (typically dailyto semiweekly), using two or more gamma rays whose energiesspan at least 50 % of the calibration range of interest. Correctthe energy calibration, if necessary.10.1.2 Check the sys
49、tem count rate reproducibility (typi-cally daily to weekly) using at least one long-lived radionu-clide. Correct for radioactive decay if significant decay (1 %)has occurred between checks.10.1.3 Check the system resolution (typically weekly tomonthly) using at least one gamma-ray emitting radionuclide(24).10.1.4 Check the efficiency calibration (typically monthly toyearly) using a National or Certified Radioactivity Standard (orStandards) emitting gamma rays of widely differing energies.10.2 The results of all performance checks shall be recordedin such a
