1、Designation: F 1279 90 (Reapproved 1999)Standard Guide forEcological Considerations for the Use of OilspillDispersants in Freshwater and Other Inland Environments,Permeable Surfaces1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1279; the number immediately following the designation indicates
2、 the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide covers the use of oilspill dispersa
3、nts to assistin the control of oil spills. The guide is written with the goal ofminimizing the environmental impacts of oil spills; this goal isthe basis on which the recommendations are made. Aestheticand socioeconomic factors are not considered although theseand other factors are often important i
4、n spill response.1.2 Spill responders have available several means to controlor clean up spilled oil. In this guide, the use of dispersants isgiven equal considerations with other spill countermeasures. Itis not considered as a last resort after all other methods havefailed.1.3 This is a general gui
5、de only. It assumes the oil to bedispersible and the dispersant to be effective, available, appliedcorrectly, and in compliance with relevant government regula-tions. In the assessment of environmental sensitivity, it isassumed that the dispersant is nonpersistent in the naturalenvironment. Oil, as
6、used in this guide, includes crude oils andrefined petroleum products. Differences between individualdispersants or between different oil products are not consid-ered.1.4 The guide is organized by habitat type; for example,small ponds and lakes, rivers and streams, and land. Itconsiders the use of d
7、ispersants primarily to protect habitatsfrom impact (or to minimize impacts) and to clean them aftera spill takes place.1.5 This guide applies only to freshwater and other inlandenvironments. It does not consider the direct application ofdispersants to subsurface waters.1.6 In making dispersant use
8、decisions, appropriate govern-ment authorities should be consulted as required by law.1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices a
9、nd determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Significance and Use2.1 This guide is meant to aid local and regional responseteams who may use it during spill response planning and spillevents.2.2 This guide should be adapted to site-specific circum-stances.3. Environment
10、CoveredPermeable Surfaces3.1 Permeable ground includes any soil, rock, agriculturalland and forest, pasture land, forest, roadside or other surface,that is permeable to water and oil.4. Background4.1 The effects of oil and especially that of dispersed oil onterrestrial biota is not well known. In on
11、e study, oil spilled onsoil decreased the nematode (worm) population by as much as80 % (1).2Lai Hoi-Chaw and co-workers show that a littornidgastropod (snail) showed avoidance to oil spilled on the mud ofa mangrove swamp (2). This avoidance decreased the mortalityof the species to both oil and chemi
12、cally-dispersed oil. McGillhas noted that soil arthropods (insects) are quickly killed afterspills (3).4.2 Oil has a broad-spectrum herbicidal effect on plants(3,4). Effects vary depending on concentration and on species.Oil in low concentrations has been shown to increase growth insome species, whe
13、reas slight contact with oil causes death inothers (4). Black spruce, alfalfa and canola have a lowtolerance for oil, while willow, dogwood and brome grass havea high tolerance (5). Light oils may be toxic to vegetation oncontact. Heavy oils have a tendency to smother plants over alonger period of t
14、ime (3). Oiling of the vegetative portions maykill the upper portion of the plant, but the root may still live andproceed to grow new stalks (3). In one test, 0.4 to 3.4 L/m2ofa light crude oil killed most plants in a northern boreal setting(6). In another experiment light fuel oil at 0.6 % by weigh
15、tkilled all plants present (7). Oil reduces the germination rate ofseeds. Weathered oil on the soil forms a crust which can slowrevegetation (3). Revegetation time varies but has ranged from1 to 20 years depending on location, condition, and amount ofoiling (1,3).1This guide is under the jurisdictio
16、n of ASTM Committee F-20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spill Responseand is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.13 on Treatment.Current edition approved Feb. 23, 1990. Published April 1990.2The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list of references at the end ofthis guide.1Copyrig
17、ht ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.4.3 Oil spilled on ground will penetrate the surface, the rateof penetration depending on soil type, pore size, depth of thewater table, and oil type. Studies on marine beaches show thatdispersants increase the oil penet
18、ration. Dispersants increasethe penetration rate and depth (8,9). Rowland and co-workersshowed that dispersants premixed with oil increased penetra-tion into supratidal sediment (10). Dewling and Silva examinedthe use of dispersants on a beach in Brazil and determined thatthe average penetration of
19、oil was increased from 5 to 60 cm bythe use of hydrocarbon-based dispersants (11).4.4 Oil degradation takes place on soil surfaces under manyconditions. Factors that increase degradation rate and amountinclude high oxygen level, ample but not excessive (saturating)moisture, slightly alkaline pH, hig
20、h temperature and amplenutrients (1). Initially after a spill, the diversity of soilmicroorganisms is decreased by the toxicity of the oil, but thetotal number is increased due to the increase in number ofoleoclasts (oil degrading microorganisms). Soil respirationincreases after a spill (1). Parkins
21、on showed in a test spill onnorthern boreal soil that soil respiration increased 100 % andthe bacterial numbers increased tenfold (12).4.5 Microbial degradation of oil occurs primarily at the soilsurface (1,3,13). One study showed that below 15 cm there waslittle degradation (14). Degradation occurs
22、 primarily at thesurface due to oxgyen, low but sufficient moisture, supply ofnutrients, and because the highest population of oleoclasts isthere (1).4.6 Contamination of groundwater is of prime concern inland spills. Little oil degradation takes place in groundwaterand dilution alone would take man
23、y years to allow use of agroundwater supply contaminated by an oil spill (1,15). Onestudy estimated that 120 to 750 years of rainfall dilution alonewould be required so that the supply could be used for humanconsumption (15).4.7 Several remediation techniques have been demonstratedfor oiled soils (1
24、,3,5). Most of these techniques involveaeration, addition of fertilizer, and planting of cover crops.These techniques are well-documented and have been effectivein restoring agricultural land to full production in as little asfive years. No scientific evidence is available to show thatdispersants ha
25、ve a useful role in these remediation techniques.5. General Considerations for Making Dispersant UseDecisions5.1 The dispersant use decision is, in this case as mostothers, one of tradeoffs. The use of dispersants can reduce theadverse effects of spilled oil on certain biological species at theexpen
26、se of other components of the ecosystem.5.2 In most cases the mortality of individual creatures is ofless concern than the destruction of habitat. The repopulationof areas after the spill will occur naturally when an areabecomes a suitable habitat for a given species.5.3 Groundwater protection is a
27、high priority for land spills.Groundwater contamination has serious consequences and isdifficult to clean up. Groundwater should be protected duringland spill cleanup.6. Recommendations6.1 Where groundwater contamination is not a concern, theuse of dispersants may be considered as a spill countermea
28、sure.6.2 The use of dispersants on permeable surfaces is notrecommended where groundwater can be affected. Consulta-tion with a groundwater specialist is recommended.6.3 Degradation of oil occurs naturally on many soils andthe use of dispersants can move oil downward where itdegrades more slowly. Th
29、e use of dispersants is only recom-mended when other technologies are ineffective in reducing thepotential for oil runoff or animal contact. This is one of theenvironmental trade-off situations.7. Keywords7.1 dispersants; freshwater; inland; oil spill; oilspill dispers-ants; permeable; soilREFERENCE
30、S(1) Bossert, I., and Bartha, R. “The Fate of Petroleum in Soil Ecosys-tems,” Petroleum Microbiology, R. M. Atlas, ed., MacMillan Publish-ing Company, New York, NY, 1984, pp. 435473.(2) Lai, H. C., Lim, C. P., and Lee, K. T. “Effects of Naturally andChemically Dispersed Oil on Invertebrates in Mangr
31、ove Swamps.”Fate and Effects of Oil in the Mangrove Environment, eds. H. C. Laiand M. C. Feng, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Singapore, 1984, pp.101114.(3) McGill, W. B., and Bergstrom, D., “Inland Oil Spills and their Impactson Land,” Stress on Land in Canada, Lands Directorate, EnvironmentCanada, Ott
32、awa, Ont., 1983, pp. 153181.(4) Baker, J. M., “The Effects of Oil on Plant Physiology,” The EcologicalEffects of Oil Pollution on Littoral Communities, E. B. Cowell, ed.,Institute of Petroleum, London, England, 1971, pp. 8898.(5) McGill, W. B. An Introduction for Field Personnel to the Effects of Oi
33、lSpills on Soil and Some General Restoration and Cleanup Procedures,Canadian Petroleum Association, Calgary, Alta., 1976.(6) Hutchinson, T. C., and Hellebust, J. A., Oil Spills and Vegetation atNorman Wells, N.W.T., Task Force on Northern Oil Development,Department of Indian and Northern Affairs, Ot
34、tawa, Ont., 1974.(7) Swader, F. N., “Persistance and Effects of a Light Fuel Oil in Soil,”Proceedings of the 1975 Oil Spill Conference, American PetroleumInstitute, Washington, DC, 1975, pp. 589593.(8) Owens, E. H., Foget, C. R., and Robson, W.,“ Experimental Use ofDispersants for Spill Countermeasu
35、res on Arctic Beaches,” Oil SpillChemical Dispersants: Research, Experience, and Recommendations,ASTM STP 840, ASTM, 1984, pp. 324337.(9) Mackay, D., Watson, A., and Kuhnt, A., The Behaviour of Oil andChemically Dispersed Oil at Shorelines, Petroleum Association for theConservation of the Canadian E
36、nvironment, Ottawa, Ont., 1979.(10) Rowland, S. J., Tibbetts, P. J. C., Little, D., Baker, J. M., and Abbiss,T. P., “The Fate and Effects of Dispersant-Treated Compared withUntreated Crude Oil, with Particular Reference to Sheltered IntertidalSediments,” Proceedings of the 1981 Oil Spill Conference,
37、 AmericanPetroleum Institute, Washington, DC, 1981, pp. 283293.(11) Dewling, R. T., and Silva, C. C. D. A. E., “Impact of Dispersant UseDuring the BRAZILIAN MARINA Incident,” Proceedings of theF 127921979 Oil Spill Conference, American Petroleum Institute, Washing-ton, DC, 1979, pp. 269276.(12) Park
38、inson, D., Oil Spillage on Micro-organisms in Northern Cana-dian Soils, Task Force on Northern Oil Development, Department ofIndian and Northern Affairs, Ottawa, Ont., 1973.(13) Wilson, J. T., Noonan, M. J., and McNabb, J. F., “Biodegradation ofContaminants in the Subsurface,” Ground Water Quality,
39、eds. C. H.Ward, W. Giger, and P. L. McCarty, John Wiley and Sons, New York,NY, 1985, pp. 483492.(14) Duffy, J. J., Peake, E., and Mohtadi, M. F., “Subsurface Biophysio-chemical Transformations of Spilled Crude Oil,” Proceedings of theConference on the Environmental Effects of Oil and Salt Water Spil
40、lson Land, Research Secretariat Alberta Environment, Edmonton,Alta., 1975, pp. 136183.(15) Duffy, J. J., Mohtadi, M. F., and Peake, E., “Subsurface Persistance ofCrude Oil Spilled on Land and its Transport in Groundwater,”Proceedings of the 1977 Oil Spill Conference, American PetroleumInstitute, Was
41、hington, DC, 1977, pp. 475478.The American Society for Testing and Materials takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connectionwith any item mentioned in this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any suchpaten
42、t rights, and the risk of infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.This standard is subject to revision at any time by the responsible technical committee and must be reviewed every five years andif not revised, either reapproved or withdrawn. Your comments are invited eith
43、er for revision of this standard or for additional standardsand should be addressed to ASTM Headquarters. Your comments will receive careful consideration at a meeting of the responsibletechnical committee, which you may attend. If you feel that your comments have not received a fair hearing you sho
44、uld make yourviews known to the ASTM Committee on Standards, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428.This standard is copyrighted by ASTM, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States. Individualreprints (single or multiple copies) of this standard may be obtained by contacting ASTM at the above address or at 610-832-9585(phone), 610-832-9555 (fax), or serviceastm.org (e-mail); or through the ASTM website (http:/www.astm.org).F 12793
