1、Designation: F 1693 96 (Reapproved 2003)Standard Guide forConsideration of Bioremediation as an Oil Spill ResponseMethod on Land1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1693; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revi
2、sion, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 The goal of this guide is to provide recommendationsfor the use of biodegradation enhancing agents
3、for remediatingoil spills in terrestrial environments.1.2 This is a general guide only, assuming the bioremedia-tion agent to be safe, effective, available, and applied inaccordance with both manufacturers recommendations andrelevant environmental regulations.As referred to in this guide,oil include
4、s crude and refined petroleum products.1.3 This guide addresses the application of bioremediationagents alone or in conjunction with other technologies, follow-ing spills on surface terrestrial environments.1.4 This guide does not consider the ecological effects ofbioremediation agents.1.5 This guid
5、e applies to all terrestrial environments. Spe-cifically, it addresses various technological applications used inthese environments.1.6 In making bioremediation-use decisions, appropriategovernment authorities must be consulted as required by law.1.7 This standard does not purport to address all of
6、thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use. In addition, it is theresponsibility of the user to ensure that suc
7、h activity takesplace under the control and direction of a qualified person withfull knowledge of any potential or appropriate safety and healthprotocols.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2F 1481 Guide for Ecological Considerations for the Use ofBioremediation in Oil Spill ResponseSand and G
8、ravelBeaches3. Terminology3.1 Definitions:3.1.1 aerobesorganisms that require air or free oxygen forgrowth.3.1.2 anaerobesorganisms that grow in the absence of airor oxygen and do not use molecular oxygen in respiration.3.1.3 bioaugmentationthe addition of microorganisms(predominantly bacteria) to i
9、ncrease the biodegradation rate oftarget pollutants.3.1.4 biodegradationchemical alteration and breakdownof a substance, usually to smaller products, caused by micro-organisms or their enzymes.3.1.5 bioremediationenhancement of biodegradation.3.1.6 bioremediation agentsinorganic and organic com-poun
10、ds and microorganisms that are added to enhance degra-dation processes, predominantly microbial.3.1.7 biostimulationthe addition of microbial nutrients,oxygen, heat, or water, or some combination thereof, toenhance the rate of biodegradation of target pollutants byindigenous species (predominantly b
11、acteria).3.1.8 ecosystemorganisms and the surrounding environ-ment combined in a community that is self-supporting.3.1.9 identificationthe process of establishing the identityof an unknown organism by comparing the properties withrespect to known organisms.3.1.10 indigenousnative to a given habitat
12、or environ-ment.3.1.11 methemoglobinemiaan acquired blood disorderleading to oxygen deprivation, stupor, and death from exposureto nitrates in drinking water.3.1.12 nutrienta substance that supports the growth oforganisms.3.1.13 refined petroleum productsproducts derived bymeans of various treatment
13、 processes from crude oil, a highlycomplex mixture of paraffinic, cycloparaffinic, and aromatichydrocarbons that contains a low percentage of sulfur and traceamounts of nitrogen and oxygen compounds. Hydrocarbon1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on HazardousSubstances and Oi
14、l Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.24 on Bioremediation.Current edition approved March 10, 1996. Published May 1996.2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStand
15、ards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.products made by refining crude oils are specified in Section 5of the Annual Book of ASTM Standa
16、rds (1).33.1.14 riskthe probability or likelihood that an adverseeffect will occur.3.1.15 speciesa taxonomic category characterized by in-dividuals of the same genus that are mutually similar and areable to interbreed.3.1.16 terrestrialconsisting of land, as distinguished fromwater.3.1.17 toxicityth
17、e property of a material, or combinationof materials, to affect organisms adversely.4. Significance and Use4.1 The purpose of this guide is to provide remediationmanagers and spill response teams with guidance on analternate means (called bioremediation) of treating oil spillssafely and effectively
18、on and below terrestrial surfaces.4.2 Bioremediation is one of many available tools and maynot be applicable to all situations. This guide can be used inconjunction with other ASTM guides addressing oil spillresponse operations, including Guide F 1481, as well asoptions other than bioremediation.5.
19、General Considerations for Bioremediation Use5.1 Bioremediation technologies attempt to accelerate thenatural rate of biodegradation. In situ, solid-phase, and slurry-phase represent the major bioremediation technologies used.These technologies may be unnecessary in those cases in whichthe natural r
20、ate of biodegradation suffices. The use of adequatecontrols in preliminary field studies, or the results of previouslyreported studies, will assist in determining the extent to whichmicroorganism or nutrient amendments, or both, are necessaryto obtain the desired rate of degradation.5.2 Bioremediati
21、on performance depends on the efficiencyof the petroleum hydrocarbon degrading indigenous microor-ganisms or bioaugmentation agents. Performance also dependson the availability of rate-limiting nutrients and the suscepti-bility of the target crude oil or refined product to microbialdegradation.5.2.1
22、 In general, aerobic bioremediation systems degrade oilmore rapidly than anaerobic systems.5.2.2 Numerous microorganisms, represented by hundredsof species, are responsible for the degradation of the oil.Various texts describe the biodegradability and biodegradationrates of a variety of organic comp
23、ounds present in oil (2,3).5.2.3 The biodegradation of saturated hydrocarbons in theabsence of molecular oxygen is limited to a few species. Ingeneral, shorter chain hydrocarbons are less effectively de-graded in anaerobic conditions compared with aerobic condi-tions. However, anaerobic degradation
24、is possible (4) if there isat least one double bond on the hydrocarbon molecule, in anappropriate position.5.3 Bioremediation must be conducted under the guidanceof qualified personnel who understand the safety and healthaspects of site activities.6. Background6.1 General background information conc
25、erning approachesto bioremediation are presented in this guide, as well asdiscussed in Guide F 1481. Pertinent information from thatguide is included in 6.1.1 through 6.1.4, as follows:6.1.1 Approaches to bioremediation for oil spill responseinclude biostimulation, the addition of nutrients, oxygen,
26、 heat,or water, or combination thereof, to stimulate indigenousmicroorganisms, and bioaugmentation, the addition of oil-degrading microorganisms, which may be used in combinationwith biostimulation (5-15). As a precaution, it should be notedthat nutrient components may be toxic or harmful to plants,
27、animals, and humans, and that non-indigenous species mayalter the indigenous microbial ecological balance at leasttemporarily. Water effluent nitrate levels, which can affectdrinking water sources, should be minimized to diminish risksof anemias such as methemoglobinemia. Similarly, excessiveammoniu
28、m levels should be avoided because they can affectfish and invertebrates, since many are immobile and cannotavoid the treated area. Therefore, nitrogen and other nutrientlevels should be monitored. Instructions to ensure safety andeffective product use should be established by the manufactureror sup
29、plier for each commercial microbial product, and specificinstructions should be followed by the product user.6.1.2 Biostimulation has been shown to enhance the biodeg-radation of terrestrial oil spills. Biostimulation uses the addi-tion of appropriate nutrients (for example, nitrogen, phospho-rus, p
30、otassium, micronutrients, and so forth), oxygen, heat, orwater, which may have been limiting factors. If microbialdegraders of the target oil contaminants are present in the soilor contaminated waters, this approach may lead to increases inthe rate of degradation. In some cases there may not be asuf
31、ficient indigenous oil-degrading population to stimulate.This may be the case in environments in which the degraderpopulation has not developed. Alternately, the toxic nature ofthe petroleum product may diminish or eliminate microorgan-isms. Also, the excavation of soil from anoxic zones andsubseque
32、nt relocation to an oxygen-rich environment mayresult in a lack of microbial degraders due to the drastic changein conditions (16). The microbial response to biostimulationmay include a lag period (weeks to months) for the growth ornatural selection of degraders to occur. Microorganisms, aswell as o
33、il contaminants, should be monitored throughout theprocess to establish efficacy and safety. Comparisons withdatabases that include soil and water microorganisms may beused to identify microbes.6.1.3 Bioaugmentation may use commercial microbialproducts, on-site production of microbes from stock cult
34、ures,or laboratory isolation, characterization, and subsequent pro-duction of microbes from the particular site (or another sitesimilar in soil and contaminant characteristics). This approachmay increase soil microbe concentrations rapidly. Microbesselected must be nonpathogenic and must metabolize
35、the oilcontaminant(s), reducing toxicity. Growth requirements of themicrobes need to be well understood. Their growth rate iscontrolled by the limiting growth conditions of temperature,pH, nutrients, water, oxygen, the contaminated medium (soil,3The boldface numbers in parentheses refer to the list
36、of references at the end ofthis guide.F 1693 96 (2003)2sludge, and water), and oil. Microorganisms as well as oilcomponents should be monitored to establish efficacy andsafety.6.1.4 While apparently safe and effective in the laboratorysetting, genetically engineered oil-degrading microorganismshave
37、not yet been authorized for environmental release (16).6.2 There are several bioremediation technologies available.It is important to understand the potential use of these systemswhen assessing their applicability for full-scale implementa-tion. Costs are determined by the size of the site, soilprop
38、erties, type and level of oil contaminant(s), goals, timeallowed for attaining the goals, and testing requirements.6.3 In situ bioremediation occurs without excavation of thecontaminated soil. This technology relies predominantly on theenhanced degradation of oil by bacteria following the additionof
39、 nutrients, air, oxygen or oxygen-releasing compounds, andmoisture. This has been demonstrated through the use ofindigenous as well as augmented microorganisms. Ground-water treatment may be achieved simultaneously or throughpump and ex situ treatment methods.Anaerobic biodegradationsystems can also
40、 be promoted; however, their utility is limited.Since soil is not excavated, volatile release is limited, and therisks and costs associated with excavation and treatment arereduced.6.3.1 Bioventing involves the introduction of air underpressure to the unsaturated zone of contaminated soil. Theproces
41、s pulls or pushes air into the soil for use by the aerobicmicroorganisms. Although the purpose is to deliver oxygenrequired by the microbes, the flow of air will desorb some ofthe more volatile components from the soil (for example,gasoline-contaminated soil), and the exhaust gases may have tobe tre
42、ated. Successful treatment requires adequate soil porosity,moisture, nutrients, and microorganisms with the appropriatebiodegradation abilities. Additives may be provided at or nearthe surface to percolate through the treatment zone.6.3.2 Biosparging is similar to bioventing except that air isinject
43、ed directly into the ground below the water table in thesaturated zones. Although the purpose is to deliver oxygenrequired by the microbes, vacuum pumps may be used torecover vapors that may also have to be treated prior todischarge. Nutrients and microbes may be added in theinjection well to stimul
44、ate and augment biodegradation.6.4 Solid-phase bioremediation treats soils above ground,primarily in contained treatment cells or tanks. Techniquessimilar to landfarming are used, including irrigation, tilling,and nutrient and microbe additions. As with in situ bioreme-diation, treatment can involve
45、 biostimulation or bioaugmenta-tion. Abiotic losses through volatilization and leaching can beminimized through treatment design and implementation. Thecontaminated soil is contained, preventing leaching, and isdefined with respect to the volume and concentration of the oil,especially as the soil is
46、 homogenized during processing. Thedefined nature of the soil and its oil contaminants allowpredictability in the remedial process.6.4.1 A comprehensive contaminated materials handlingplan (CMHP) should be developed prior to excavation andtreatment when using systems that require excavation. It mayi
47、nclude the designation of a materials staging area presentwithin the treatment facility and equipment decontaminationwithin delineated exclusion zones.6.4.2 A comprehensive health and safety program should bein effect throughout the remediation project. This program mayinclude medical examinations o
48、f employees, contact and res-piratory protection, and air, soil, and water monitoring.6.4.3 The treatment facility, or biopad, should contain anappropriate rainfall event protection (for example, 10 years,24-h rainfall event). After the appropriate soil moisture contentis determined for the specific
49、 treatment, a water budget shouldbe calculated. This should maintain the proper moisture con-tent balance between moisture added by irrigation and rainfall,and moisture lost through evaporation, transpiration, andpercolation.6.4.4 Solid heaping (biopiles or soil piles) involves pilingthe contaminated soil to several meters, usually over a networkof perforated piping that may be layered throughout. Nutrients,water, and microorganisms are added through simple irrigationtechniques, and air is drawn through pipes by vacuum. Thevacuum system exhaust may be treated prior t
