1、Designation: F 1788 08Standard Guide forIn-Situ Burning of Oil Spills on Water: Environmental andOperational Considerations1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 1788; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision,
2、 the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide covers the use of in-situ burning to assist inthe control of oil spills on water. This guide i
3、s not applicable toin-situ burning of oil on land.1.2 The purpose of this guide is to provide information thatwill enable spill responders to decide if burning will be used aspart of the oil spill cleanup response.1.3 This is a general guide only. It is assumed that condi-tions at the spill site hav
4、e been assessed and that theseconditions are suitable for the burning of oil. It is also assumedthat permission to burn the oil has been obtained fromappropriate regulatory authorities. Variations in the behavior ofdifferent oil types are not dealt with and may change some ofthe parameters noted in
5、this guide.1.4 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded asstandard. The values given in parentheses are mathematicalconversions to inch-pound units that are included for informa-tion only and are not considered standard.1.5 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns,
6、 if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Documents2.1 ASTM Standards:2F 1990 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Spilled
7、Oil: IgnitionDevicesF 2152 Guide for In-Situ Burning of Spilled Oil: Fire-Resistant Boom3. Terminology3.1 Definitions:3.1.1 burn effciencyburn efficiency is the percentage ofthe oil removed from the water by the burning.3.1.1.1 DiscussionBurn efficiency is the amount (volume)of oil before burning; l
8、ess the volume remaining as a residue,divided by the initial volume of the oil.3.1.2 burn ratethe rate at which oil is burned in a givenarea.3.1.2.1 DiscussionTypically, the area is a pool and burnrate is the regression rate of the burning liquid, or may bedescribed as a volumetric rate.3.1.3 contac
9、t probabilitythe probability that oil will becontacted by the flame during burning.3.1.4 controlled burningburning when the combustioncan be started and stopped by human intervention.3.1.5 fire-resistant boomsdevices that float on water torestrict the spreading and movement of oil slicks and con-str
10、ucted to withstand the high temperatures and heat fluxes ofin-situ burning.3.1.6 in-situ burninguse of burning directly on the watersurface.3.1.6.1 DiscussionIn-situ burning does not include incin-eration techniques, whereby oil or oiled debris are placed intoan incinerator.3.1.7 residuethe material
11、, excluding airborne emissions,remaining after the oil stops burning.4. Significance and Use4.1 This guide is primarily intended to aid decision-makersand spill-responders in contingency planning, spill response,and training.4.2 This guide is not specific to either site or type of oil.5. Background5
12、.1 Overview of Oil Burning:5.1.1 In-situ burning is one of several oil-spill countermea-sures available. Other countermeasures could include mechani-cal recovery, use of oil-spill dispersants, and leaving the oil tonatural processes.5.1.2 In-situ burning is combustion at the spill site withoutremovi
13、ng the oil from the water. Containment techniques maybe used, however, to increase the thickness of the oil (GuideF 2152). The thickness of the oil slick is an important factor inthe use of in-situ burning.1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spi
14、ll Response and is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.15 on In-Situ Burning.Current edition approved Sept. 15, 2008. Published September 2008. Originallyapproved in 1997. Last previous edition approved in 2003 as F 1788 97 (2003).2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.
15、astm.org, orcontact ASTM Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.5.2 Ma
16、jor Advantages and Disadvantages of In-situ Burn-ing:5.2.1 Advantages of in-situ burning include the following:5.2.1.1 Rapid removal of oil from the water surface,5.2.1.2 Requirement for less equipment and labor thanmany other techniques,5.2.1.3 Significant reduction in the amount of materialrequiri
17、ng disposal,5.2.1.4 Significant removal of volatile emission compo-nents, and5.2.1.5 May be the only solution possible, such as inoil-in-ice situations.5.2.2 Disadvantages of in-situ burning include the follow-ing:5.2.2.1 Creation of a smoke plume,5.2.2.2 Residues of the burn must be dealt with,5.2.
18、2.3 Time in which to ignite the oil may be limited,5.2.2.4 Oil must be a minimum thickness to burn, whichmay require containment, and5.2.2.5 The fire may spread to other combustible materials.6. Environmental Considerations for Deciding to UseIn-Situ Burning6.1 Air Quality:6.1.1 Several studies have
19、 been done of the air emissionsresulting from in-situ burning. It has been found that the smokeplume consists largely of carbon. The high temperaturesachieved during in-situ burning result in efficient removal ofmost components of the oil. The thick, black smoke can be ofconcern to nearby human popu
20、lations or ecologically sensitiveareas. Since most soot precipitation occurs near the fire, this isthe main area of concern. The smoke plume is, however,generally an aesthetic concern. In-situ burning should beavoided within 1 km upwind of either an ecologically sensitiveor a heavily populated area,
21、 depending on meteorologicalconditions. No emissions greater than one fourth of the 2008human health exposure limits have been detected at groundlevel further than 1 km from an oil fire. The values of thehuman health exposure limits vary with jurisdiction, and, thus,the appropriate documents should
22、be consulted. The environ-mental and economic trade-offs of burning the oil, as opposedto contamination of the shoreline, must be considered.6.1.2 Burning can be safely conducted near populated areasif there is sufficient air turbulence for mixing, and in theabsence of a low-level atmospheric invers
23、ion.6.2 Water QualityMeasurements show that burning doesnot accelerate the release of oil components or combustionby-products to the water column. Highly efficient burns ofheavy oils may form a dense residue that sinks.6.3 Wildlife ConcernsAlthough no specific biologicalconcerns related to the use o
24、f in-situ combustion have beenidentified to date, benthic resources may be affected by sunkenoil burn residue.7. Operational Considerations for In-situ Burning7.1 Safety ConsiderationsThe safety of the proposedoperation shall be the primary consideration. Secondly, theburning operation shall not res
25、ult in unintentional flashback tothe source of the oil, for example, the tanker or the productionplatform. The third consideration is the spread of the fire toother combustible material in the area, including trees, docks,and buildings. Flashback and fire spread can often be preventedby using contai
26、nment booms to tow away the oil to be burned.A fourth consideration is the safety of the ignition operation,which is often done from helicopters, and the safety of theboom tow operation must be ensured.7.2 Safety Monitoring and Control RequirementsThe op-eration must be monitored to meet safety requ
27、irements. Burn-ing shall be monitored to ensure that fire may not spread toadjacent combustible material. Situation-specific contingencymethods of extinguishing, such as boats with fire monitors,shall be available. In towed-boom operations, it has beenproposed that the fire may be extinguished by in
28、creasing thetow speed so that the oil is entrained in the water. Other optionsfor controlling the fire or the burn rate might include releasingone side of the oil containment boom or slowing down toreduce the encounter rate.7.3 Oil ThicknessMost oils can be ignited on a watersurface if they are a mi
29、nimum of 2 to 3 mm thick (GuideF 1990). Once ignited, the oils will burn down to a thickness ofabout 1 mm. Physical containment, such as with oil-spillcontainment booms, is usually necessary to achieve the mini-mum thicknesses required. Specific information on this isprovided in the appendix.7.4 Oil
30、 Type and ConditionHighly weathered oils willburn, but will require sustained heat during ignition. Oil that isemulsified with water may not burn. Not enough data areavailable to determine water-content levels that limit ignition.Indications are, however, that stable emulsions which typicallycontain
31、 about 70 % water cannot be ignited and that oilscontaining less than about 25 % water will burn. Treatmentwith chemicals to remove water (de-emulsifiers) before burn-ing can permit ignition.7.5 Wind and Sea ConditionsStrong winds may extin-guish the fire. In-situ burning can be done on the sea with
32、winds less than about 40 km/h (about 20 knots). High sea statesare not conducive to containment by booms. Wave heights of 1m or more may result in splash-over of the oil.7.6 Burn EffciencyBurn efficiency, which is the percent-age of oil removed by burning, has been measured as high as99 % for contai
33、ned oil. Presence of debris, water, or ice canlower this to as much as half. Burn efficiency is largely afunction of oil thickness and flame-contact probability. Contactprobability is the probability that oil will be contacted by theflame during burning. Inhomogeneous oil distribution on thesurface
34、can result in an incomplete burn. This can result as theflame may be extinguished over a patch that is not thick enoughto burn, while adjacent patches that are thick enough willsubsequently not be burned. Contact is usually random and isinfluenced by wind speed and direction and can be controlledby
35、human intervention in some cases.7.7 Burn RateOil burns at the rate of about 3.7 mm/min,which means that the surface of the oil slick regressesdownwards at the rate of 3.7 mm/min. This translates to a rateof about 5000 L/m2/day (or 100 gal/ft2/day). Heavy oils canburn at lesser rates such as about 2
36、 mm/min. Other than thisF1788082factor, burn rate is relatively independent of physical condi-tions and oil type. Using these values, it is possible to calculatethe rate of burning in booms and in other burn operations.7.8 ContainmentOil slicks must be a minimum thicknessto be ignited. As oil natura
37、lly spreads quickly to much thinnerslicks than this under normal circumstances, physical contain-ment is generally necessary for burning. Fire-resistant boomsare commercially available for this purpose. While thesebooms can be used in a variety of configurations, they are bestused in a catenary mode
38、 and towed at speeds less than 0.35 m/s(0.7 knots). At speeds greater than this, oil is lost under theboom by entrainment. Slicks can sometimes be naturallycontained by ice or against shorelines.7.9 IgnitionSlicks can be ignited with a variety of devices(Guide F 1990). Enough heat must be supplied f
39、or a sufficientlength of time. Weathered oils generally require a longerheating time to ignite.7.10 Residue Cleanup:7.10.1 Residue is the material remaining after the oil stopsburning. Residue is similar to a highly weathered oil, depend-ing on the burn conditions. It is viscous and often highlyadhe
40、sive. Highly efficient burns result in heavier and denserresidue. These residues may actually be denser than sea water.7.10.2 Floating residue can be removed manually withsorbents, nets, or similar equipment.8. Summary8.1 In-situ burning is a viable countermeasure that has thepotential to quickly re
41、move large amounts of oil. The airemissions of in-situ burning are below health and environmen-tal concern levels at certain distances from the combustionsource.9. Keywords9.1 fire-resistant booms; in-situ burning; oil-spill burning;oil-spill containment; oil-spill disposalAPPENDIX(Nonmandatory Info
42、rmation)X1. INTRODUCTION TO THE IN-SITU BURNING OF OIL SPILLSINTRODUCTIONIn-situ burning has been used as an oil-spill countermeasure around the world (1, 2).3Recently,extensive research has been conducted on the many facets of burning oil (3, 4, 5). The emissions fromand basic principles of oil-spi
43、ll burning are now relatively well-understood.X1.1 Basic Principles of Burning OilX1.1.1 Oil slicks can be ignited if they are at least 2 to 3 mmthick and will continue to burn down to slicks of about 1 to 2mm thick (6). These thicknesses are required because of heattransfer. Sufficient heat is requ
44、ired to vaporize material forcontinued combustion. In a thin slick, most of the heat is lostto the water, vaporization is not sustained, and combustionceases.X1.1.2 Containment is usually required to concentrate oilslicks so that they are thick enough to ignite and burn (7).Fire-resistant containmen
45、t booms can be used to keep fire fromspreading back to the spill source, such as an oil tanker (8).Burning in situ without the benefit of containment booms canbe undertaken only if the oil is thick enough (2 to 3 mm) toignite. For most crude oil spills, this only occurs for a fewhours after the spil
46、l event unless the oil is confined behind abarrier. Oil on the open sea spreads rapidly to equilibriumthicknesses. For light crude oils, this is about 0.01 to 0.1 mm,for heavy crudes and heavy oils, this is about 0.05 to about 0.5mm.X1.1.3 Oil can be contained by natural barriers. For ex-ample, ice
47、has been shown to serve as a natural boom. Severalsuccessful experiments and burns of actual spills have shownthat burning is a proven countermeasure for spills in ice (4, 9).Spills have occasionally been contained by shorelines. Burningcould be applied in these instances, if the shoreline is remote
48、and no combustible materials such as trees and docks arenearby.X1.1.4 It is uncertain whether oil that is completely emul-sified with water can be ignited. Oil containing some emulsioncan be ignited and burned (10). During the successful test burnof the Exxon Valdez oil, some patches of emulsion wer
49、epresent (probably less than 20 %) and this did not affect eitherthe ignitability or the efficiency (11). It is suspected that firebreaks down the water-in-oil emulsion, and thus water contentmay not be a problem if the fire can be started. There isinconclusive evidence at this time on the water content atwhich emulsions can still be ignited. One test suggested that aheavier crude would not burn with about 10 % water (6),another oil burned with as much as 50 % (12), and still anotherburned with about 70 % water (13). One study indicated thatemulsions may burn i
