1、Designation: F2327 15Standard Guide forSelection of Airborne Remote Sensing Systems forDetection and Monitoring of Oil on Water1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F2327; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revisi
2、on, the year of last revision. A number in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon () indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide provides information and criteria for selec-tion of remote sensing systems for the detectio
3、n and monitor-ing of oil on water.1.2 This guide applies to the remote sensing of oil-on-waterinvolving a variety of sensing devices used alone or incombination. The sensors may be mounted on vessels, inhelicopters, fixed-wing aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles(UAVs), or aerostats. Excluded are situ
4、ations where the aircraftis used solely as a telemetry or visual observation platform andexo-atmosphere or satellite systems.1.3 The context of sensor use is addressed to the extent ithas a bearing on their selection and utility for certain missionsor objectives.1.4 This guide is generally applicabl
5、e for all types of crudeoils and most petroleum products, under a variety of marine orfresh water situations.1.5 Many sensors exhibit limitations with respect to dis-criminating the target substances under certain states ofweathering, lighting, wind and sea, or in certain settings.1.6 This guide giv
6、es information for evaluating the capabil-ity of a remote surveillance technology to locate, determine theareal extent, as well as measure or approximate certain othercharacteristics of oil spilled upon water.1.7 The values stated in SI units are to be regarded asstandard. No other units of measurem
7、ent are included in thisstandard.1.8 Remote sensing of oil-on-water involves a number ofsafety issues associated with the modification of aircraft andtheir operation, particularly at low altitudes. Also, in someinstances, hazardous materials or conditions (for example,certain gases, high voltages, e
8、tc.) can be involved. Thisstandard does not purport to address all of the safety concerns,if any, associated with its use. It is the responsibility of the userof this standard to establish appropriate safety and healthpractices and determine the applicability of regulatory require-ments prior to use
9、.2. Significance and Use2.1 The contributions that an effective remote sensing sys-tem can make are:2.1.1 Provide a strategic picture of the overall spill,2.1.2 Assist in detection of slicks when they are not visibleby persons operating at, or near, the waters surface or at night,2.1.3 Provide locat
10、ion of slicks containing the most oil,2.1.4 Provide input for the operational deployment ofequipment,2.1.5 Extend the hours of clean-up operations to includedarkness and poor visibility,2.1.6 Identify oceanographic and geographic features to-ward which the oil may migrate,2.1.7 Locate unreported oil
11、-on-water,2.1.8 Collect evidence linking oil-on-water to its source,2.1.9 Help reduce the time and effort for long rangeplanning,2.1.10 A log, or time history, of the spill can be compiledfrom successive data runs, and2.1.11 Asource of initial input for predictive models and for“truthing” or updatin
12、g them over time.3. Remote Sensing Equipment Capabilities andLimitations3.1 The capability of remote sensing equipment is, in largemeasure, determined by the physical and chemical propertiesof the atmosphere, the water, and the target oil. There may bevariations in the degree of sophistication, sens
13、itivity, andspatial resolution of sensors using the same portion of theelectromagnetic spectrum and detector technology. Sensorswithin a given class tend to have the same general capabilitiesand typically suffer from the same limitations.3.2 Combinations of sensors offer broader spectral coveragewhi
14、ch, in turn, permit better probability of detection, betterdiscrimination, and effective operation over a broader range ofweather and lighting conditions. Certain combinations, or1This guide is under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committee F20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spill Response and is the dire
15、ct responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.16 on Surveillance and Tracking.Current edition approved Oct. 1, 2015. Published November 2015. Originallyapproved in 2003. Last previous edition approved in 2008 as F2327 08. DOI:10.1520/F2327-15.Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700,
16、West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959. United States1sensor suites, are well documented, and their use is particularlysuited to oil spill response missions.3.3 The performance of virtually all sensors can be en-hanced by a variety of real-time, near real-time or postprocessing techniques applied to the a
17、cquired data or imagery.Furthermore, image or data fusion can greatly enhance theutility of the remote sensing output or product. Similarly, thereexists a variety of technological considerations and organiza-tional ramifications that relate to the delivery of the remotesensing information to the use
18、r.3.4 Certain parameters need to be identified and quantifiedto provide an oil spill response decision-maker with all of theinformation needed to best respond to a spill. These are:3.4.1 Locationof the approximate center and edges of thespill,3.4.2 Geometrysource or origin, total area, orientationan
19、d lengths of major and minor axes, fragmentation, anddistribution,3.4.3 Physical conditionsoil appearance, entrained debris,3.4.4 Environmental conditionswave height and direc-tion; water temperature; position of oceanic fronts, conver-gence and divergence zones,3.4.5 Proximity of threatened resourc
20、es, and3.4.6 Location of response equipment.3.4.7 Thickness or relative thickness of the slick.3.5 Remote sensing can contribute to all of the above dataneeds. Depending on the spill situation and the employment ofremote sensing, some of this information may already beavailable, or can be determined
21、 more cost effectively by othermeans. For example, in a response mode, or tactical employ-ment of remote sensing, it is likely that the source, generallocation and type of oil have been reported well in advance ofthe launch of the remote sensing platform. In a regulatory orpatrol context, this infor
22、mation may not be available. The spillsituation influences the priorities among the elements ofinformation and, thereby, influences the selection priorities forsensors.3.6 A responder may require the data on an oil spill, 24hours per day, independent of the prevailing weather.3.7 Information from re
23、mote sensing is required in a timelymanner. Strategic or enforcement information, such as theoverall extent and location of a spill, should be availablepreferably within two to four hours from information gatheringto presentation.3.8 Tactical information, such as steering information forresponse ves
24、sels, should be available in as little as five minutesfrom detection to communication. The acceptable data deliverytime is a function of the dynamics of the slick, proximity tocritical areas, and the availability of clean-up resources.3.9 Thermal imaging may provide relative thickness infor-mation u
25、seful to oil spill countermeasures, that is informationthat the slick is thicker than sheen.3.10 The passive microwave sensor is currently available togive information on oil thickness.3.11 Table 1 lists sensors based upon their mode of opera-tion. Summary information on their advantages and disadva
26、n-tages is presented.3.12 Table 2 presents a summary of key attributes whichgenerally influence the selection of remote sensing instrumen-tation.3.13 Table 3 addresses the mission specific aspects of sensorselection.4. Summary4.1 The information presented in this guide should beconsidered a starting
27、 point for sensor selection. In addition tothe context of use and the attributes of the various types ofsensors, the system planner will have to give due considerationto the capabilities of the aircraft and the information needs ofthe users before finalizing the system design. Both sensortechnology,
28、 and image and data analysis capabilities areevolving rapidly. Some equipment is not commercially-available and requires assembly and in some cases requiresdevelopment. Up to two years lead time may be required forsome equipment.F2327 152TABLE 1 Sensor CharacteristicsSensor/ Band Principal of Operat
29、ion Positive Features LimitationsVisual Operate in, and near, the (human) visiblespectrum (400 to 750 nm). Using photographicfilms, scanners with one or more narrow banddetectors or charge coupled devices (CCD) tocapture an image.Equipment is widely available, generallyinexpensive, light and easily
30、accommodatedon most any aerial platform. Imagery is inevery-day use and the layman can easilyrelate to its content. This characteristicmakes the imagery an excellent base forrecording and presenting other data.Oil is generally perceptible over the entire visiblespectrum, but not uniquely so. As such
31、, instancesof not being able to discriminate the oil from itsbackground, or differentiate it from othersubstances or phenomena in or on the waterssurface, lead to frequent non-detects and falsepositives. Night vision cameras may extend theoperational window, but visual technologies arelimited by ava
32、ilable light.Infrared While the infrared (IR) spectrum ranges from 750nm to 1 mm, the bulk of the available remotesensing systems operate in the thermal or mid-IR, 3 m (3000 nm) to 30 m (30 000 nm).Within this range there are two predominant sub-groups operating at 3 to 5 m and 8 to 12 or 14m. The l
33、atter range offers the most useful datafor oil spills.Fresh oil shows a contrast to open water inthe thermal infrared. This characteristic is notunique to hydrocarbons. Slicks thicker thanabout 20 to 70 mAcan be seen. Newer IRcameras have excellent thermaldiscrimination, fairly good resolution, arel
34、ight-weight, have modest power demands,and typically have both digital and videooutputs.Sheen may not be detectable. Otherheterogeneities such as high seaweed or debriscontent, oil in or on ice, oil on beaches, etc. mayrender the oil undetectable in the IR.Ultraviolet Oil is highly reflective in the
35、 ultraviolet (UV200to 400 nm).Very thin (10 nm) layers of oil can bedetected in the UV.BThus, even sheen, acommon regulatory definition of oil pollution,can be delineated.UV cameras have fairlygood resolution, are light-weight and haveminimal power demands.High UV reflectance is not unique to oil. S
36、un glint,biogenic and other materials and phenomena canyield strong returns in the UV. This technology islimited to available light situations, and is best usedin combination with other sensors, typically IR.Radar Oil has a damping effect on high frequency, lowamplitude (1 to 10 cm) capillary waves.
37、 Thesewaves, yielding a “rougher” surface, returnconsiderably more radar energy to the receiverthan calm water. As such, under the properconditions, oil can appear as a low return, darkarea in a larger, bright field of un-oiled waves.Specially tuned Side Looking Airborne Radar(SLAR) and Synthetic Ap
38、erture Radar (SAR) aretwo types suited to oil detection. Ship-borneradars can be optimized to detect oil slicks.Radar has some unique advantages overother oil spill sensors: it can operate day ornight; it can operate in times of reducedvisibility; it can operate at higher, safer andmore fuel-efficie
39、nt altitudes. Typical rangesare 10 to 50 km. Ship-mounted radars havea range of typically 25 km.Oil is not the only source of calms. Other, naturallyoccurring substances and phenomena can give riseto smooth water.CIf the prevailing wind is less thanabout 1.5 m/s, there will not be enough“roughness”
40、in oiled water to create the necessaryroughness contrast. Likewise, above about 6 m/sthe calming effect of, at least thin, oil begins todiminish.DThe potential for false positives is high.Airborne radar equipment is expensive and itrequires fairly extensive modifications to an aircraft,thus adding t
41、o both the acquisition and theoperational costs.MicrowaveRadiometerOil is a stronger emitter of microwave radiationthan water (emissivity factor of 0.8 versus 0.4,respectively).ETherefore it shows up as a brightarea against a darker background.The passive microwave radiometer has beendemonstrated to
42、 detect oil on water evenunder low visibility conditions.The technology is subject to the same limitationsas radar. This is an evolving technique requiringadditional development and demonstration before acommercial unit is marketable. Current units areinstalled in dedicated aircraft and this trend i
43、s likelyto continue in the near term.Fluoro-sensorsOil targeted or illuminated with UV light willadsorb this energy and re-emit, or fluoresce, inthe visible band. Other materials fluoresce aswell, but there is enough spectral uniqueness tooil to render it readily discernable. In fact it ispossible t
44、hat various generic types of oil andpetroleum products can be differentiated.Thecoherent light from a laser permits the delivery ofmore energy from greater distances making anairborne fluorosensors feasible.The laser fluorosensor permits the positiveidentification of oil and even permits somediscrim
45、ination between types of oil. Itappears to be the only sensor available todaythat permits the detection of oil againstcomplex backgrounds as is the case with oilon beaches and in, or with, the ice.Laser fluorosensors are fairly bulky and requiresignificant modifications to relatively large,dedicated
46、 aircraft. Laser fluorosensors requireflights as low as 1000 feet (300 m) to providesufficient illumination by the laser. Non-scanninginstruments provide only a narrow footprint of data.AFingas, M. F. and Brown, C., “Review of Oil Spill Remote Sensing” Marine Pollution Bulletin, (83), 1, pp. 923, 20
47、14.BFingas, M. F. and Brown, C. E., “An Update on Oil Spill Remote Sensors,” in Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar,Environment Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, 2005, pp. 825860.CFrysinger, G. S., Asher, W. E., Korenowski, G. M., Barger, W. R., Klusty, M. A
48、., Frew, N. M., and Nelson, R. K., “Study of Ocean Slicks by Nonlinear Laser Processesin Second Harmonic Generation,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 1992.DWisman, V., Alpers, W., Theis, R., and Hhnerfuss, H., “The Damping of Short Gravity-Capillary Waves by Monomolecular Sea Slicks Measured by Air
49、borneMulti-frequency Radars,” Journal of Geophysical Research, 1993.EUlbay, F. T., Moore, R. K., and Fung, A. K., Microwave Remote Sensing: Active and Passive, ArchtHous, Inc., 1989.F2327 153ASTM International takes no position respecting the validity of any patent rights asserted in connection with any item mentionedin this standard. Users of this standard are expressly advised that determination of the validity of any such patent rights, and the riskof infringement of such rights, are entirely their own responsibility.This standard is subject to revision at any time
