1、Designation: F 2464 05Standard Guide forCleaning of Various Oiled Shorelines and Habitats1This standard is issued under the fixed designation F 2464; the number immediately following the designation indicates the year oforiginal adoption or, in the case of revision, the year of last revision. A numb
2、er in parentheses indicates the year of last reapproval. Asuperscript epsilon (e) indicates an editorial change since the last revision or reapproval.1. Scope1.1 This guide provides information on shoreline types andsensitive habitats that can be used as guidance for selectingappropriate cleaning te
3、chniques following an oil spill. Theemphasis is on typical physical and biological attributes ofcoastal habitats that could be at risk from marine oil spills. Itreviews and encompasses the entire spectrum of shorelinetypes representing a wide range of sensitivities. It is largelybased on NOAAs Chara
4、cteristic Coastal Habitats, and theAPI 4706 Publication Environmental Considerations for Ma-rine Oil Spill Response.1.2 This guide provides only very broad guidance oncleaning strategies for the various habitats. For more in-depthguidance, the reader is referred to Section 2, ReferencedDocuments.1.3
5、 This standard does not purport to address all of thesafety concerns, if any, associated with its use. It is theresponsibility of the user of this standard to establish appro-priate safety and health practices and determine the applica-bility of regulatory limitations prior to use.2. Referenced Docu
6、ments2.1 ASTM Standards:2F 1686 Guide for Surveys to Document and Assess OilingConditions on ShorelinesF 1687 Guide for Terminology and Indices for Describingthe Oiling Conditions on ShorelinesF 2204 Guide for Describing Shoreline Response Tech-niquesF 2205 Guide for Ecological Considerations for th
7、e Use ofChemical Dispersants in Oil Spill Response: TropicalEnvironments2.2 American Petroleum Institute (API) Publication:3Environmental Considerations for Marine Oil Spill Re-sponse, API Publication 4706, 2001, 319 pp.2.3 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA) Publication:4Character
8、istic Coastal Habitats, Choosing Spill ResponseAlternatives, 2000, Office of Response and Restoration.88 pp.3. Significance and Use3.1 One of the key considerations in making sound clean-updecisions for oiled shorelines and marine resources is therelative sensitivity of the impacted area. Some areas
9、 may be sosensitive that cleaning methods could cause more harm thanbenefit. In such cases, natural recovery will be the preferredapproach. In other cases, depending on the type of oil, theamount of oil present may be so extensive that recovery will besignificantly delayed or not occur at all unless
10、 active interven-tion is carried out.3.2 This guide presents summary information taken fromAPI Publication 4706 and NOAA Publication CharacteristicCoastal Habitats on the relative physical and biologicalsensitivities of shorelines and other marine habitats. It is to beused along with Guides F 1686,
11、F 1687, and F 2204 as well asthe other referenced publications to make informed decisionsprior to undertaking cleaning operations.3.3 The relative sensitivities of shorelines and resourcesrelate to a number of factors:3.3.1 Shoreline type (substrate, grain size, tidal elevation,etc.),3.3.2 Biologica
12、l productivity, diversity and vulnerability,3.3.3 Exposure to wave and tidal energy, and3.3.4 Ability to conduct cleanup without undue ancillarydamage.4. Description and Relative Sensitivity of Shorelines4.1 This section summarizes the types of shorelines andhabitats that may be impacted by an oil s
13、pill. The Environ-mental Sensitivity Index (ESI) is frequently used to character-ize relative sensitivity of shorelines to oil spills. Areas exposedto high levels of physical energy and containing low biologicalactivity would rank low (ESI=1, example: exposed rocky1This guide is under the jurisdicti
14、on of ASTM Committee F20 on HazardousSubstances and Oil Spill Response and is the direct responsibility of SubcommitteeF20.17 on Shoreline Countermeasures.Current edition approved March 1, 2005. Published April 2005.2For referenced ASTM standards, visit the ASTM website, www.astm.org, orcontact ASTM
15、 Customer Service at serviceastm.org. For Annual Book of ASTMStandards volume information, refer to the standards Document Summary page onthe ASTM website.3Available from the American Petroleum Institute (API), 1220 L. Street, NW,Washington, DC 200054070, www.api.org4Available from the National Ocea
16、nic and Atmospheric Administration(NOAA), 7600 Sand Point Way, NE, Seattle, Washington, 98115, http:/response.restoration.noaa.gov/oilaids/reports.html.1Copyright ASTM International, 100 Barr Harbor Drive, PO Box C700, West Conshohocken, PA 19428-2959, United States.shores). Sheltered areas with ass
17、ociated high biological activityhave the highest ranking (ESI=10, example: mangroves).Broad guidelines are provided on preferred strategies forcleaning these shorelines following an oil spill incident.4.2 Exposed Rocky ShoresAlso known as exposed wave-cut cliffs. The inter-tidal zone is steep (more
18、than 30-45 slope)and narrow with little width. Access can be difficult anddangerous. Sediment accumulation is uncommon and usuallytransitory because waves remove the debris from the erodingcliffs. There is strong vertical zonation of inter-tidal biologicalcommunities. Species density and diversity v
19、ary greatly butcan be abundant. Oil would generally be held offshore byreflection of the waves. Any oil that is deposited would berapidly removed naturally. Cleanup is usually not required.4.3 Exposed Man-made StructuresThese are solid struc-tures such as seawalls, piers, and port facilities. They a
20、recommon in developed areas, providing protection to residentialand industrial zones. Many structures are constructed ofconcrete, wood, stone, or metal. They are built to protect fromerosion by waves, boat wakes, and currents. They are exposedto rapid natural removal processes. Attached animals andp
21、lants are sparse to moderate. Oil would be held offshore bywaves reflecting off the steep, hard surfaces in exposedsettings. Cleanup may not be required.4.4 Exposed Wave-Cut PlatformsThese shores are char-acterized by gently sloping bedrock shelves, called platforms,of highly variable width. A steep
22、 scarp or low bluff may backthe shoreline. They often co-occur with gravel beaches. Theplatform surface is irregular and tidal pools are common. Smallaccumulations of gravel can be found in the tidal pools andcrevices in the platform. Pockets of sandy “tidal flats” canoccur on the platform in less e
23、xposed settings. These habitatscan support large populations of encrusting animals and plants,including barnacles, snails, mussels, and macroalgae. Birds andseals use platforms for feeding and resting during low tide. Oildoes not adhere to the wet surface, but could penetrate crevicesor sediment ven
24、eers. Cleanup may not be required. Where thehigh-tide area is accessible, it may be feasible to manuallyremove heavy oil accumulations and oiled debris.4.5 Sand BeachesBeaches are generally flat to moderatelysloping and relatively hard-packed. They are commonlybacked by dunes or seawalls along expos
25、ed outer coasts. Therecan be heavy accumulations of wrack (remnants of strandedmarine vegetation or wrecked ships) or other debris. Beachescan undergo rapid erosion/deposition cycles as currents andstorms relocate the sand. Biological populations are typicallyof low density. Birds use beaches for re
26、sting, feeding, andnesting. Marine turtles use beaches to lay their eggs. Oilpenetration can be as much as 15 cm in fine- to medium-grainsand and up to 30 cm in coarse-grain sand. Cleanup shouldconcentrate on removing persistent oil and oily debris manu-ally from the upper swash zone.4.6 Tundra Clif
27、fsThese shorelines are found in extremelycold regions near permafrost areas. They are generally com-prised of vegetation overlying peat and permafrost. The cliffheight ranges from less than 1 meter to as much as 10 meters.The vegetation on the tundra is a living plant community thatis sensitive to d
28、isturbance. The main users of this shoreline aremigratory birds during the summer season and they are most atrisk by oiling. Oil can be removed by sorbing with natural peatfrom beach deposits or by manual and mechanical methods aslong as there is no damage to the peat substrate.4.7 Mixed Sand and Gr
29、avel BeachesThese moderatelysloping beaches contain significant (over 25 % each) amountsof both sand and gravel. The high-tide berm area is usuallycomposed of sand and fine gravel and the lower part of thebeach is coarser with cobbles to boulders. There can belarge-scale changes in the sediment dist
30、ribution patterns de-pending upon season, because of the transport of sand offshoreduring storms. Desiccation and sediment mobility on exposedbeaches result in low densities of attached animals and plants.The presence of algae, mussels, and barnacles indicatesbeaches that are relatively sheltered. O
31、il penetration into thebeach sediments may be up to 50 cm. If the sand fractionexceeds 40 %, oil behavior will be much as it is for a sandbeach. Heavy accumulations of pooled oil should be removedfrom upper beach faces using low-pressure flushing. All oileddebris should be removed; sediment removal
32、should be limitedas much as possible. Movement of oiled sediment fromhigh-tide zones to upper inter-tidal zones can be effective inareas regularly exposed to wave activity.4.8 Gravel BeachesThese beaches are composed of sub-strate ranging in size from pebbles to boulders. They can bevery steep, with
33、 multiple wave-built berms forming the upperbeach. Density of animals and plants in the upper inter-tidalzone is low on exposed beaches, but can be high on shelteredgravel beaches and on the lower inter-tidal zone. Stranded oilis likely to penetrate deeply into gravel beaches because of thehigh perm
34、eability/pore space. Heavy accumulations of pooledoil should be removed quickly from the upper beach. All oileddebris should be removed. Substrate removal should be limitedas much as possible.4.9 RiprapRiprap is composed of cobble to boulder-sizedblocks of granite, limestone, concrete, or other mate
35、rials whichare intentionally added to the marine environment for theprotection of shorelines. Examples are breakwaters and jettiesaround inlets and marinas. Riprap is common in highlydeveloped waterfront areas. Attached biological communitiesvary from rich to sparse. Birds use riprap as resting site
36、s.Persistent oil can penetrate deeply between the riprap and canreadily adhere to rough surfaces. High pressure ambient waterflushing may be effective for removal if the oil is fresh andliquid, but the oil must be recovered. Special care must betaken in cleaning riprap as personnel injuries have bee
37、n oftenreported for this particular shoreline type.4.10 Exposed Tidal FlatsThese are broad inter-tidal areascomposed primarily of sand and mud and minor amounts ofgravel. Tidal currents and waves are strong enough to mobilizethe sediment. Flats are usually associated with another shore-line type suc
38、h as wetlands on the landward side, though theycan also occur as separate shoals. They are commonly associ-ated with estuaries and tidal inlets. Seagrass beds may occur onthe lower edges of tidal flats. Large numbers of infauna may bepresent. Tidal flats are heavily used by birds for roosting andfor
39、aging, and are rearing areas for fish and shellfish. Oil doesnot usually adhere to the surface of exposed tidal flats but willF2464052move across and accumulate at the high-tide line. Currents andwaves are very effective in natural removal of the oil. Heavymachinery or other aggressive techniques ar
40、e not recom-mended for cleanup.4.11 Sheltered Rocky Shores and Clay ScarpsRockyshorelines consist of bedrock of variable slope, ranging fromvertical to wide rocky ledges, which are sheltered from mostwave and tidal energy. Species density and diversity varygreatly. Clay scarps frequently occur along
41、 bays and man-madewaterways. Clay scarps provide important nursery grounds forfish and feeding areas for birds. Clay substrate may havenumerous holes from animal burrows and root cavities. Thesehabitats should be assigned high priority when establishingprotection zones. Oil will generally not adhere
42、 to wet surfacessuch as algae-covered rock and clay sediment, so it will end upon dry, rough rock surfaces, particularly at the high-tide line. Ifoil is to be removed, use only low-pressure flushing of therocky surfaces at high tide so that oil can be recovered beforeit can impact biologically rich
43、areas in the lower tidal zones.4.12 Peat ShorelinesPeat shorelines are formed fromeroding tundra cliffs that are adjacent to intertidal zones. Theseshorelines are found inAlaska and inArctic regions. Erosion ofpeat shorelines occurs from wave action, ice scour, and meltingof frozen peat. Eroded peat
44、 can accumulate as thick mats in theintertidal zone. Peat shorelines typically occur as mats depos-ited on a sand or gravel beach. Another thin and temporarylayer of sand may overlie the peat. Peat shorelines containslurry-type materials having the appearance of coffee grounds.The slurry is found at
45、 the foot of eroding peat scarps and indepositional areas. The slurry moves along the shore with thecurrents. Natural recovery may be the least damaging responseoption. Mechanical removal of oil may result in physicaldamage and mixing the oil into the peat.4.13 Inundated Lowland TundraThis habitat o
46、ccurswhere areas of the Arctic shoreline have subsided and areflooded by the sea. This habitat also includes low-lying areasnot in the intertidal zone that can be inundated during springtide or storm surges. Inundated lowland tundra areas arecomplex and may be comprised of tundra, vegetated flats an
47、driver banks, peat mats, brackish lagoons, streams, and ice. It isan important feeding area for migratory birds. Lowland tundrais highly sensitive to oil spills. Extensive damage to the tundrais likely to occur during cleanup. Access and movement onland or nearshore may be difficult. Natural recover
48、y may be theleast damaging response option. Some cleanup may be war-ranted if large amounts of oil persist and cause chronicre-oiling of adjacent habitats.4.14 Sheltered Tidal FlatsThese are very low-energyhabitats, which support large populations of animals andplants. The flats are important foragi
49、ng areas for birds andnursery areas for marine organisms. Infauna are typicallyabundant. Sheltered tidal flats are composed primarily of mud,silt, and clay with minor amounts of sand and shell. Tidal flatsare sheltered from major wave activity. Marshes and seagrassbeds may be associated with the tidal flats. The sediments aresoft and cannot support even light foot traffic. Oil does notusually adhere to the surface but rather moves across the flatand accumulates at the high tide line. If burrows or othercrevices in muddy sediments are present, oil can fill these andimpac
