1、Welding Inspection HandbookWelding Inspection Handbook Fourth Edition 2015 Prepared by the AWS B1C Standing Task Group on Welding Inspection Handbook Under the Direction of the AWS Technical Activities Committee Approved by the AWS Board of Directorsii ISBN: 978-0-87171-855-6 2015 by American Weldin
2、g Society All rights reserved Printed in the United States of America THE WELDING INSPECTION HANDBOOK is a collective effort of many volunteer technical special- ists to provide information to assist welding inspectors and supervisors in the technology and application of visual and nondestructive ex
3、amination. Reasonable care is taken in the compilation and publication of the Welding Inspection Handbook to ensure authenticity of the contents. However, no representation is made as to the accuracy or reliability of this information, and an independent substantiating investigation should be undert
4、aken by any user. The information contained in the Welding Inspection Handbook shall not be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, which is covered by patent, copyright, or trade
5、mark. Also, it shall not be construed as a defense against any liability for such infringe- ment. Whether or not use of any information in the Handbook would result in an infringement of any patent, copyright, or trademark is a determination to be made by the user.iii Personnel A WS B1C Standing Tas
6、k Group on Welding Inspection Handbook U. Aschemeier, Chair Subsea Global Solutions LLC E. Abrams, Secretary American Welding Society B. Baker Bechtel National, Incorporated R. Campbell Banker Steel Company R. Clarke TEAM Industrial Services R. Cook SME Steel Contractors G. Gratti Arcos Industries L
7、LC E. Lichtfusz Roush Industries C. Mankenberg Shell International Exploration the acceptance standards to be employed; and an understanding of drawings, and welding and nondestructive examination symbols. Knowledge about discontinu- ities that may be associated with different welding processes, and
8、 the ability to evaluate the dif- ference between discontinuities and rejectable defects, is also an important element of welding inspection. This fourth edition of the Welding Inspection Handbook has been prepared by the AWS B1C Welding Inspection Handbook Task Group. The objective is to provide a
9、reliable source of use- ful reference information. This is particularly relevant for the technically trained individual who may not be directly involved with inspection but whose position requires knowledge about welding inspection. This book also is intended for the inspector who needs a general re
10、fresher in the basic requirements of weld inspection. This fourth edition supersedes the AWS Welding Inspection Handbook bearing the same title, and includes changes to numerous clauses to provide clarification, correct inconsistencies, and updates representative of current industry practices. Under
11、lined text in the clauses and subclauses indicates a change from the 2000 edition. A vertical line in the margin indicates a revision from the 2000 edition. Additional books on the subjects covered in each chapter may be found in good technical libraries. The many specifications and codes that have
12、been used as examples may also be con- sulted for more detailed information. This book is an instructive reference. Codes or specifications applicable to any particular weld- ment always take precedence over the generalized material contained herein. The text of this book has, of necessity, been wri
13、tten in general terms and cannot include all the conditions applicable to a specific instance. Thus, examples given are general and are used only for the purpose of illustration. Every effort has been made to present this material in convenient form so that the book can be used as a training text fo
14、r inspectors, engineers, and welders. Although the information gener- ally relates to the arc welding processes, most of it applies to any weldmentfabricated by any joining processfor which the inspection methods described herein may be required. For the inspection of brazed assemblies, refer to The
15、 Brazing Handbook published by the American Welding Society. For the inspection of resistance welded assemblies, refer to AWS/ SAE D8.7, Recommended Practices for Automotive Weld QualityResistance Spot Welding, also published by the American Welding Society. Information on nondestructive examination
16、 methods is available in AWS B1.10M/B1.10, Guide for Nondestructive Examination of Welds, and in AWS B1.11M/B1.11, Guide for the Visual Examination of Welds. Comments and inquiries concerning this publication are welcome. They should be sent to the Managing Director, Technical Services Division, Ame
17、rican Welding Society, 8669 NW 36St, # 130, Miami, FL 33166.vii Contents Chapter Page Personneliii Forewordv List of Tables viii List of Figures.ix 1 Scope and Application .1 2 Symbols3 3 Requirements for the Welding Inspector13 4 Welding Inspection Operations21 5 Inspection Safety Considerations.27
18、 6 Quality Assurance33 7 Ferrous Welding Metallurgy 37 8 Preheating and Postweld Heat Treating .53 9 Weld and Weld Related Discontinuities.57 10 Qualification of Welding Procedure Specifications .75 11 Qualification of Welders and Welding Operators 91 12 Computerization of Welding Inspection and Qua
19、lity.103 13 Destructive Testing of Welds .111 14 Proof Tests137 15 Nondestructive Examination Methods.141 16 Qualification of Nondestructive Examination Personnel.239 17 Codes and Other Standards241 18 Metric Practice .255 Index.267viii List of Tables Ta b l e Page 4.1 Sequence of Welding and Inspec
20、tion Operations . 24 10.1 Welding Procedure Specification and Welder Qualification Factors Which May Require Requalification .81 13.1 Typical Hardness Conversion Table (Approximate) (for Carbon and Low-Alloy Steels in Accordance with ASTM E140 and ASTM A370)120 15.1 Considerations when Selecting an
21、NDE Method.143 15.2 Radiographic Isotopes Used in Industrial Radiography 155 15.3 Approximate Radiographic Equivalence Factors of Several Metals157 15.4 Resistivity and Conductivity of Some Metals and Alloys .218 18.1 SI Base and Supplementary Units and Symbols255 18.2 SI Derived Units and Symbols.2
22、56 18.3 SI Factors, Prefixes, and Symbols256 18.4 Units Not Part of the SI System .257 18.5 SI Unit Conversion Factors 258 18.6 General Conversion Factors .258 18.7 Commonly Used Metric Conversions (InchMillimeter Conversion).262 18.8 Pressure and Stress Equivalentspsi and ksi to kPa and MPa263 18.9
23、 Conversions for FahrenheitCelsius Temperature Scales 264 ix List of Figures Figure Page 2.1 AWS Standard Welding Symbols 4 2.2 Comparison of Welding Symbol and Written Explanation6 2.3 Examples of Typical Fillet Welds Showing the Corresponding Symbols and Dimensions7 2.4 Examples of Typical Groove
24、Welds Showing the Corresponding Symbols and Dimensions.8 2.5 Standard Location of Elements for NDE Symbols 9 2.6 Examples of Typical Nondestructive Examination Symbols.9 2.7 Master Chart of Welding, Allied Processes, and Thermal Cutting10 5.1 SDS Sheet 28 7.1 Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram.38 7.2 Crystal
25、 Structure of Cold Rolled Steel in Weld Area 39 7.3 Martensite Showing Needle-Like or Acicular Structure (500X Before Reduction).40 7.4 Example of Delayed Cracking in HAZ42 7.5 Corrosion Attack of Sensitized Stainless Steel in Acid Environment .46 7.6 Microfissure in Austenitic Stainless Steel (100X
26、).47 7.7 Closeup of Lamellar Tear Under a Fillet Weld Showing Typical Stepped Appearance (Magnification 8X) 48 9.1 Typical Distortion of Welded Joints.59 9.2 Overlap.61 9.3 Weld Sizes61 9.4 Incomplete Joint Penetration and Incomplete Fusion .63 9.5 Underfill .65 9.6 Various Types of Cracks.66 9.7 Po
27、rosity 70 10.1 AWS Structural Welding Code, Welding Procedure Example Form.79 10.2 Example of a Suggested Procedure Qualification Record (PQR)86 10.3 ASME Welding Procedure Qualification Record Example Form .88 11.1A Test Plate for Unlimited ThicknessWelder Qualification 93 11.1B Optional Test Plate
28、 for Unlimited ThicknessHorizontal Position Welder Qualification 93 11.2A Tubular Butt JointWelder QualificationWithout Backing94 11.2B Tubular Butt JointWelder QualificationWith Backing.94 11.3A Positions of Groove Welds.95 11.3B Positions of Fillet Welds 96 11.4 Positions of Test Plates for Groove
29、 Welds .97 11.5 Positions of Test Pipe or Tubing for Groove Welds.98 11.6 Positions of Test Plate for Fillet Welds 99 11.7 Positions of Test Pipes for Fillet Welds .100x 11.8 Suggested Form for Welding Performance Qualification 101 12.1 A Welding Inspection Database .105 13.1 Typical Photomacrograph
30、s.114 13.2 Photomicrograph Illustrating the Appearance of a Crack in the Heat-Affected Zone (Approximately 100X)114 13.3 Photomicrographs 115 13.4 Typical Stress-Strain Diagram Used in the Offset Method121 13.5 Standard Tension Specimens123 13.6A Transverse Face- and Root-Bend Specimens.126 13.6B Tr
31、ansverse Side-Bend Specimens 127 13.7 Fixture for Guided Bend Test.128 13.8A Transverse Rectangular Tension Test Specimen (Plate) 130 13.8B Longitudinal Rectangular Tension Test Specimen (Plate) .131 13.9 Typical Fillet Weld Break and Macroetch Test for Fillet Welder or Welding Operator Qualificatio
32、n.132 13.10 Charpy (Simple-Beam) Impact Test Specimens 134 13.11 Charpy (Simple-Beam) Impact Test.135 15.1 Welding Engineer Data Sheet 146 15.2 Rulers, Measuring Tapes, and Gauges for Checking Fitup and Weld Dimensions .147 15.3 Weld Bead Contours 148 15.4 Workmanship Standard 149 15.5 Sketches of W
33、eld Undercut and Overlap .150 15.6 Photographs of Weld Undercut and Overlap151 15.7 Weld Inspection Gauges.152 15.8 Typical “Shadow Graph” .154 15.9 The Penumbral Shadow .158 15.10 Geometric Principles of Shadow Formation 159 15.11 Factors Affecting Quality of Radiographic Image.162 15.12 Sources of
34、 Scattered Radiation 164 15.13 Characteristic Curve For a Typical Industrial X-Ray Film 166 15.14 The “Tools of The Trade” for the Radiographer 169 15.15 Typical Penetrameter Design .170 15.16 Typical Radiographic Exposure Arrangements .172 15.17 Typical Radiographs of Weld Discontinuities177 15.18
35、Block Diagram, Pulse-Echo Flaw Detector .179 15.19 Decibel-To-Screen Height or V oltage Nomograph 181 15.20 Snells Law of Reflection and Refraction 183 15.21 Amplitude Calibration Using Flat Bottom Holes 185 15.22 Shear Wave Ultrasonic Beam.185 15.23 Amplitude Calibration186 15.24 Ultrasonic Ruler A
36、pplication .190 15.25 Flaw Orientation.191 15.26 Sound Beam Propagation Showing Sound Path Distance .191 15.27 Magnetic Field in a Bar Magnet 194 15.28 Magnetic Field in a Bar Magnet That Has Been Cut in Half.195 15.29 Magnetism Around a Notch Cut in a Bar Magnet .196 Figure Pagexi 15.30 Magnetic Fi
37、eld Around a Conductor Carrying Current.197 15.31 Field of Ferromagnetic Conductor is Confined Almost Entirely to the Conductor Itself197 15.32 Magnetic Particles Near a Defect are Attracted to the Local Poles .197 15.33 In Large Parts, Local Areas Can Be Magnetized; Arrows Indicate Field198 15.34 P
38、art to be Inspected Can Be Magnetized by Making it the Core of a Solenoid.199 15.35 Crack in Large Plate is Indicated by Alignment of Particles Between Prods200 15.36 Dry Powder Magnetic-Particle Inspection of Welds with Portable Equipment 202 15.37 Wet Fluorescent Magnetic-Particle Inspection to Sh
39、ow Fine Surface Defects203 15.38 Typical Indication of Surface Crack in a Weld 207 15.39 Indication of a Subsurface Crack in a Weld (The Dry Magnetic Particles Assume a Less Defined Pattern)208 15.40 Liquid Penetrant Comparator.213 15.41 Frequencies Used for Various Test Problems 215 15.42 Cross-Sec
40、tional View of a Bar with a Small Crack, Surrounded by an Exciting Coil and a Pickup Coil, Showing Eddy Current Distribution216 15.43 Relative Conductivity of Metals and Alloys Related to Eddy Current Meter Readings 217 15.44 Influence of Impurities on the Conductivity of Pure Copper.219 15.45 Typic
41、al B/H (Hysteresis) Curve .220 15.46 Lines of Magnetic Flux Surrounding a Solenoid.220 15.47A Instrumentation Readout for Electromagnetic Testing 221 15.47B Typical Eddy Current Readout from Strip Chart Illustrating Good and Bad Weld Areas.221 15.48 Production of Eddy Currents by an Alternating Fiel
42、d .222 15.49 Testing Coils Carrying Alternating Current.223 15.50 Examples of Electromagnetic Probe Coils.224 15.51 Eddy Current Strength Drops Off With Distance From Surface .224 15.52 Eddy Current Flaw Detection Equipment225 15.53 Microstructure of Austenitic Weld Specimen232 15.54 Schaeffler Diag
43、ram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal.233 15.55 DeLong Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal234 15.56 Typical Flow Diagram from Contract to Approved Operations Procedures235 Figure Page1 Chapter 1 Scope and Application 1.1 Scope The scope of this handbook includes testing and examination methods that
44、apply to a majority of metallic and nonmetallic weldments used in construction. The extent of inspections should be clearly defined in contract documents or on drawings that refer to a particular weldment (unless otherwise defined in applicable codes or specifications). Furthermore, acceptance crite
45、- ria should be clearly understood and agreed upon by both the supplier and the purchaser before any production welding begins. Acceptance criteria for weld discontinuities are specifically excluded from this handbook. It is the responsibility of those charged with the administration and supervision
46、 of inspection to make certain that the principles and methods to be used are properly understood and applied uniformly. This responsibility may include the qualification and certification of inspectors where such certification is required by codes, specifications, job contracts, civil law, or com-
47、pany policies. The following documents address the qualification of welding inspection and nondestructive examination personnel: 1 (1) AWS QC1, Standard for AWS Certification of Welding Inspectors (2) AWS B5.1, Specification for the Qualification of Welding Inspectors (3) ANSI/ASNT CP-189, ASNT Stan
48、dard for Qualification and Certification of Nondestructive Testing Personnel (4) ASNT Recommended Practice SNT-TC-1A, Personnel Qualification and Certification in Nondestructive Testing (5) ASTM 1316, Standard Terminology for Nondestructive Testing (6) ISO 9712, Nondestructive TestingQualification a
49、nd Certification of NDT personnel Even when a particular qualification for certification program is not mandatory, every welding inspector should be aware of the ethical criteria for welding inspectors contained in documents such as AWS QC1. 1.2 Application The information in this handbook pertains to the general duties and responsibilities of welding inspectors and is intended as a reference to help their performance. This book provides specific information about methods of weldment inspection; however, much of the information will also generally apply to the examination of n
