1、Field Guide to SDWA Regulations Technical Editors William C. Lauer Mark Scharfenaker John Stubbart Science and Technology AWWA unites the entire water community by developing and distributing authoritative scientific and technological knowledge. Through its members, AWWA develops industry standards
2、for products and processes that advance public health and safety. AWWA also provides quality improvement programs for water and wastewater utilities.Copyright 2006 American Water Works Association. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by an
3、y means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, without the written permission of the publisher. Disclaimer This book is provided for informational purposes only, with t
4、he understanding that the publisher, editors, and authors are not thereby engaged in rendering engineering or other professional services. The authors, editors, and publisher make no claim as to the accuracy of the books contents, or their applicability to any particular circumstance. The editors, a
5、uthors, and publisher accept no liability to any person for the information or advice provided in this book, or for loss or damages incurred by any person as a result of reliance on its contents. The reader is urged to consult with an appropriate licensed professional before taking any action or mak
6、ing any interpretation that is within the realm of a licensed professional practice. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Field guide to SDWA regulations / technical editors, William C. Lauer, Mark Scharfenaker, John Stubbart. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN
7、1-58321-385-6 1. Drinking water-United States-Purification. 2. Water treatment plants-United States. I. Lauer, Bill, II, Scharfenaker, Mark, III, Stubbart, John M. TD433.F54 2005 628.162021873-dc22 2005054556 Printed in the United States of America. American Water Works Association 6666 West Quincy
8、Avenue Denver, CO 80235-3098 ISBN 1-58321-367-8iii CONTENTS Foreword, v Current Drinking Water Rules (by date issued), vii Introduction to SDWA Regulations, 1 Overview, 1 Current and Forthcoming Regulations, 21 Selected Supplemental Resources, 30 SDWA Rules and Regulations, 31 Key Points: Regulation
9、s to Control Microbial Contaminants, 32 Key Points: Regulations to Control Chemical Contaminants, 36 Key Points: Other Regulations, 42 Summaries of Regulations to Control Microbial Contaminants, 45 Total Coliform Rule, 47 Comprehensive Surface Water Treatment Rules (except LT2ESWTR)Systems Using Slo
10、w Sand, Diatomaceous Earth, or Alternative Filtration, 50 Comprehensive Surface Water Treatment Rules (except LT2ESWTR)Systems Using Conventional or Direct Filtration, 55 Comprehensive Surface Water Treatment Rules (except LT2ESWTR)Unfiltered Systems, 61 Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
11、, 66 Long-Term 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, 69 Long-Term 2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, 72 Filter Backwash Recycling Rule, 78 Proposed Ground Water Rule, 80 Summaries of Regulations to Control Chemical Contaminants, 85 Arsenic and Clarifications to Compliance and New Source Mon
12、itoring Rule, 87 Lead and Copper Rule, 89 Stage 1 Disinfectants and Disinfection By-products Rule, 95 Stage 2 Disinfectants and Disinfection By-products Rule, 98 Radionuclides Rule, 105 Proposed Radon in Drinking Water Rule, 108 Summaries of Other Regulations, 111 Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring
13、Rule, 113 Variances and Exemptions, 118 Public Notification Rule, 123 Consumer Confidence Report Rule, 127 Standardized Monitoring Framework for Chemical Contaminants, 130iv Water Quality Basics, 137 Physical Parameters, 137 Chemical Parameters, 139 Biological Parameters, 144 Radiological Parameters
14、, 145 Sanitary Survey, 146 Appendix A, Abbreviations and Acronyms, 149 Appendix B, Glossary, 1531 Introduction to SDWA Regulations The principal law governing drinking water safety in the United States is the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), the common name for Title XIV of the US Public Health Servi
15、ce Act. The SDWA works in concert with the Clean Water Act (CWA), which controls the discharge of pollutants into lakes, rivers, and streams. Enacted in 1974, the SDWA authorizes the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to establish comprehensive national drinking water regulations to ensure d
16、rinking water safety. USEPA is authorized to set national drinking water regulations, conduct special studies and research, and oversee implementation of the act. OVERVIEW The 1974 SDWA established a cooperative program among local, state, and federal agencies. The act required promulgation of prima
17、ry drinking water regulations designed to ensure safe drinking water for consumers. These regulations were the first to apply to all public water systems in the United States, covering both chemical and microbial contaminants. The SDWA mandated a major change in the surveillance of drinking water sy
18、stems by establishing specific roles for federal and state governments and for public water suppliers. State governments, through their health departments and environmental agencies, received the major responsibility, called primary enforcement responsibility, or primacy, for the administration and
19、enforcement of the regulations set by USEPA. The SDWA set a schedule and procedures for developing new drinking water standards, which included health-based2 FIELD GUIDE TO SDWA REGULATIONS goals, known as maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs), and technically achievable standards, known as maximu
20、m contaminant levels (MCLs). The act also authorized USEPA to establish treatment techniques instead of MCLs when it is not economically or technologically feasible to determine the level of a contaminant. The MCLs and treatment techniques comprise the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NP
21、DWRs) and are federally enforceable. The act also authorized USEPA to establish National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs), which are nonenforceable standards established to control aesthetic parameters such as taste and odor. Major Amendments The SDWA was amended in 1986 and 1996. Major
22、 mandates of the 1986 amendments included: Setting standards for 83 contaminants by June 1989 and for an additional 25 contaminants every 3 years thereafter Designating best available technology (BAT) for each newly regulated contaminant Disinfection of all public water supplies and criteria for man
23、dating filtration of surface water supplies Monitoring for contaminants that are not regulated to determine if additional regulation is necessary Banning lead solders, lead flux, and lead pipe in public water systems Implementing new programs for protecting wellheads and sole-source aquifers and pre
24、venting contamination of groundwater sources from waste-injection wells Congress also amended the SDWA in 1988 by adding the Lead Contamination Control Act. The act, among other things, instituted a program to eliminate lead-containing drinking water coolers in schools. The SDWA amendments of 1996,
25、which govern current program activities, made substantial revisions to the act. The revisions include establishment of a state revolving fund to provide loans to help water systems comply with SDWA regulations and setting aside funds to support program implementation. The 1996 amendments also added
26、provisions for Replacing the 1986 rulemaking schedule with a program that requires USEPA to decide every 5 years whether to regulate at least five contaminants based on their occurrence and risk and the potential for achieving meaningful risk reduction Extending to 3 years the previous 18-month dead
27、line for systems to comply with new regulations, with an additional 2 years if necessary for capital improvements Establishing specific requirements for regulating arsenic, disinfection by-products, microbial contaminants, and radon Requiring community water systems to provide their customers with a
28、nnual water quality reports, called Consumer Confidence Reports (CCRs) Requiring states to assess and delineate source water protection areas for public water systems and to implement a program to certify water system operatorsINTRODUCTION TO SDWA REGULATIONS 3 Encouraging states to implement a prog
29、ram to build the managerial, technical, and financial capacity of water systems to comply with SDWA regulations and Establishing a formal program for monitoring unregulated contaminants Congress most recently amended the SDWA in 2002 to address drinking water safety and security in light of potentia
30、l terrorism threats. The amendments are part of the Public Health Security and Bioterrorism Preparedness and Response Act, in response to the 2001 terrorist attacks in New York City and Washington, D.C. The Bioterrorism Act required owners and operators of community water systems serving more than 3
31、,300 people to assess their systems vulnerability to terrorist attack or other intentional acts aimed at disrupting the supply of safe drinking water and to submit these vulnerability assessments to USEPA. Affected drinking water systems were also required to prepare emergency response plans. The ac
32、t further required USEPA to research methods to prevent, detect, and respond to the intentional introduction of chemical, biological, or radiological contaminants into community water systems and to provide certain threat-reduction information to drinking water systems. Drinking Water Regulations Re
33、gulations promulgated by USEPA contain technical details that specify the performance levels necessary to achieve compliance with SDWA provisions. USEPAs Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (OGWDW), part of the Office of Water, has the primary responsibility for establishing NPDWRs, protecting
34、 groundwater, implementing regulations, providing technical support, and enforcing SDWA mandates. Two types of drinking water standards are promulgated under the drinking water standards program: enforceable primary regulations to control health risks (Table 1-1) and nonenforceable secondary regulat
35、ions (Table 1-2) to address aesthetic concerns such as taste and odor. A primary regulation can be an MCL or a treatment technique. An MCL is set based on an MCLG, which is the concentration of a contaminant in drinking water below which there is no known or expected risk to health. The SDWA require
36、s an MCL to be set as close as technically and economically feasible to an MCLG; often the two values are equal. In some cases, the MCLG is not technically and economically achievable, and its respective MCL is less stringent. For known or suspected human carcinogens, the MCLG is usually zero. When
37、it is impossible or impractical to establish a numeric standard, the law authorizes USEPA to establish a treatment technique and to specify treatment methods that must be used to minimize exposure of the public. This was done for lead and copper regulations. Another legally enforceable standard was
38、authorized under the 1996 amendments to the SDWA to control disinfectant residuals within distribution systems. It is known as the maximum residual disinfectant level (MRDL), which is also set as close as technically and economically feasible to a health-based MRDL goal. To date, USEPA has set MRDLs
39、 for three disinfectants: chlorine, chloramines, and chlorine dioxide.4 FIELD GUIDE TO SDWA REGULATIONS Table 1-1 List of contaminants and their regulatory standard * Contaminant MCLG, mg/L MCL or TT, mg/L Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water Sources of Contaminants in Drinking Water Mic
40、roorganisms Cryptosporidium zero TT Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, cramps). Human and animal fecal waste. Giardia lamblia zero TT Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vomiting, cramps). Human and animal fecal waste. Heterotrophic plate count (HPC) N/A TT HPC has no health e
41、ffects; it is an analytic method used to measure the variety of bacteria that are common in water. The lower the concen- tration of bacteria in drinking water, the better maintained the water system. HPC measures a range of bacteria that are naturally present in the environment. Legionella zero TT L
42、egionnaires disease, a type of pneumonia. Found naturally in water; multiplies in heating systems. Total coliforms (including fecal coliform and E. coli) zero 5.0% Not a health threat in itself; is used to indicate whether other potentially harmful bacteria may be present. * Coliforms are naturally
43、present in the environment, as well as feces; fecal coliforms and E. coli only come from human and animal fecal waste. Turbidity N/A TT T urbidity is a measure of the cloudiness of water. It is used to indicate water quality and filtration effectiveness (e.g., whether disease-causing organ- isms are
44、 present). Higher turbidity levels are often associated with higher levels of disease-causing microorganisms such as viruses, parasites, and some bacteria. These organisms can cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and associated headaches. Soil runoff. Table continued next page.INTRODUCTI
45、ON TO SDWA REGULATIONS 5 Table 1-1 List of contaminants and their regulatory standard *(continued) Contaminant MCLG, mg/L MCL or TT, mg/L Potential Health Effects From Ingestion of Water Sources of Contaminants in Drinking Water Viruses (enteric) zero TT Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., diarrhea, vom
46、iting, cramps). Human and animal fecal waste. Disinfection by-products Bromate zero 0.010 Increased risk of cancer. By-product of drinking water disinfection. Chlorite 0.8 1.0 Anemia; nervous system effects in infants and young children. By-product of drinking water disinfection. Haloacetic acids (H
47、AA5) N/A 0.060 Increased risk of cancer. By-product of drinking water disinfection. Total trihalomethanes (TTHMs) none N/A 0.10 0.080 Liver, kidney, or central nervous system prob- lems; increased risk of cancer. By-product of drinking water disinfection. Disinfectants Chloramines (as Cl 2 )M R D L
48、G = 4 MRDL = 4.0 Eye/nose irritation; stomach discomfort; anemia. Water additive used to control microbes. Chlorine (as Cl 2 )M R D L G = 4 MRDL = 4.0 Eye/nose irritation; stomach discomfort. Water additive used to control microbes. Chlorine dioxide (as ClO 2 )M R D L G = 0.8 MRDL = 0.8 Anemia; nerv
49、ous system effects in infants and young children. Water additive used to control microbes. Inorganic Chemicals Antimony 0.006 0.006 Increase in blood cholesterol; decrease in blood sugar. Discharge from petroleum refineries; fire retardants; ceramics; electronics; solder. Arsenic 0 0.010 as of 1/23/06 Skin damage or problems with circulatory systems; may cause increased risk of cancer. Erosion of natural deposits; runoff from orchards, glass and electronics production wastes. Table continued next page.6 FIELD GUIDE TO SDWA REGULAT
