1、Manual of Water Supply practiceSM46 Second EditionReverse Osmosis and NanofiltrationReverse Osmosis and NanofiltrationSecond Edition46MM46, Reverse Osmosis and Nanofiltration, provides a thorough overview of these important membrane technologies for operators, engineers, educators, or anyone seeking
2、 an introduction to membrane water treatment. Chapter topics encompass theory and applications, design, equipment, costs, concentrate disposal, pretreatment, equipment installation, operations, safety, and maintenance. AdvocacyCommunicationsConferencesEducation and TrainingScience and TechnologySect
3、ionsThe Authoritative Resource on Safe Water 1P-2E-1M-30046-9/07-SBAWWA is the authoritative resource for knowledge, information and advocacy to improve the quality and supply of water in North America and beyond. AWWA is the largest organization of water professionals in the world. AWWA advances pu
4、blic health, safety and welfare by uniting the efforts of the full spectrum of the entire water community. Through our collective strength we become better stewards of water for the greatest good of the people and the environment. M46-COVER.indd 1 9/5/2007 3:07:12 PMScience and TechnologyAWWA unites
5、 the entire water community by developing and distributing authoritative scientific and technological knowledge.Through its members, AWWA develops industry standards for products and processes that advance public health and safety.AWWA also provides quality improvement programs for water and wastewa
6、ter utilities.Reverse Osmosisand NanofiltrationAWWA MANUAL M46Second EditionMANUAL OF WATER SUPPLY PRACTICESM46, Second EditionReverse Osmosis and NanofiltrationCopyright 1999, 2007 American Water Works AssociationAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in a
7、ny form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system,except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, without the written permission ofthe publisher.DisclaimerThe authors, contributors, editors, and publisher
8、do not assume responsibility for the validity of thecontent or any consequences of their use. In no event will AWWA be liable for direct, indirect, special,incidental, or consequential damages arising out of the use of information presented in this book. Inparticular, AWWA will not be responsible fo
9、r any costs, including, but not limited to, those incurred asa result of lost revenue. In no event shall AWWAs liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase ofthis book.Project Manager and Senior Technical Editor: Melissa ValentineProduction Manager: Melanie SchiffManual Coordinator: Beth Behner
10、Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Bergman, Robert.Reverse osmosis and nanofiltration. -2nd ed.p.cm. - (AWWA manual ; M46)Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 1-58321-491-7 (alk. paper)1. Water-Purification-Reverse osmosis process. 2. Water-Purification-Membrane filtrat
11、ion. 3. Drinking water-Purification. 4. Nanofiltration. I. Title. II. Series. TD442.5.B47 2007628.164-dc222007022961Printed in the United States of AmericaAmerican Water Works Association6666 West Quincy AvenueDenver, CO 80235ISBN 1-58321-491-7978-1-58321-491-6 Printed on recycled paperContentsiiiLi
12、st of Figures, vList of Tables, ixPreface, xiAcknowledgments, xiiiChapter 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1Overview, 1RO and NF Membrane Applications, 7Membrane Materials and Configurations, 12References, 18Chapter 2 Process Design . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Source Water Supply, 21Pretreatment, 26Membrane Process Theory, 45Rating RO and NF Elements, 51Posttreatment, 59References, 60Chapter 3 Facility Design and Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Raw Water Intake Facilities, 63Discharge, 77Suspended Solids a
14、nd Silt Removal Facilities, 80RO and NF Systems, 92Hydraulic Turbochargers, 95Posttreatment Systems, 101Ancillary Equipment and Facilities, 107Instrumentation and Control Systems, 110Waste Stream Management Facilities, 116Other Concentrate Management Alternatives, 135Disposal Alternatives for Waste
15、Pretreatment Filter Backwash Water, 138General Treatment Plant Design Fundamentals, 139Plant Site Location and Layout, 139General Plant Layout Considerations, 139Membrane System Layout Considerations, 140Facility Construction and Equipment Installation, 144General Guidelines for Equipment Installati
16、on, 144Treatment Costs, 151References, 162ivChapter 4 Operations and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165Introduction, 165Process Monitoring, 168Biological Monitoring, 182Chemical Cleaning, 183Mechanical Integrity, 186Instrumentation Calibration, 188Safety, 190Appendix A SI Equivale
17、nt Units Conversion Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . 193Appendix B Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195Appendix C Silt Density Index Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Appendix D Langelier Saturation Index and Stiff-and-Davis Stability Index . . . . .
18、 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207Appendix E Glossary and Acronyms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217Manuals List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225Figur
19、esv1-1 Scottsdale Water Campus10-mgd RO facility, 21-2 Membrane and conventional process overview, 41-3 Typical RO or NF membrane system, 71-4 Generalized membrane process selection chart, 81-5 Cross-section of an asymmetric membrane, 121-6 Effect of temperature and pH on hydrolysis of cellulose ace
20、tate, 131-7 Schematic cross-section of a thin-film composite RO membrane, 141-8 Spiral-wound module, 161-9 Pressure vessel assembly, 161-10 Membrane pressure vessel with eight elements, 171-11 Hollow fiber membrane module, 172-1 Feedwater flow rates for various permeate recovery rates, 242-2 Calcium
21、 sulfate solubility product versus ionic strength, 342-3 Barium sulfate and strontium sulfate solubility product versus ionic strength, 352-4 Calcium fluoride solubility product versus ionic strength, 362-5 Calcium phosphate solubility product versus pH, 362-6 Sample computerized evaluation of the s
22、upersaturation of sparingly soluble salts for a given source water, with polymeric scale-inhibitor dose projection, 372-7 Scale inhibition study, Sanibel, Fla., 392-8 Scale inhibition study, Venice, Fla., 402-9 Effect of temperature on theoretical SiO2solubility, pH 7.7, 412-10 SiO2pH correction fac
23、tors, 412-11 Greensand horizontal filters, 422-12 Osmotic flow, 462-13 Osmotic equilibrium, 462-14 Reverse osmosis, 472-15 Schematic diagram of an RO membrane element, 482-16 Effect of increasing salt concentration on flux and salt rejection, 512-17 Effect of feedwater pressure on flux and salt reje
24、ction, 512-18 Effect of increased recovery on flux and salt rejection, 522-19 Effect of feedwater temperature on flux and salt rejection, 522-20 Schematic diagram of an RO membrane device, 54vi2-21 Three-dimensional plot of permeate sodium concentration as a function of NAP and permeate recovery rat
25、e, 573-1 5,500 gpd RO system, 643-2 40,000 gpd RO system, 643-3 86,000,000 gpd RO system, 653-4 Vertical intake well, 683-5 Horizontal radial collector well, 693-6 Infiltration gallery, 703-7 Riverbed/seabed filtration system, 713-8 Seabed filtration system of Fukuoka District RO Facility, Japan, 72
26、3-9 Off-shore intake structure, Larnaca, Cyprus, 743-10 Microscreens, 763-11 500-m source water pretreatment strainers, 773-12 Desalination plant intake and discharge connection to power plant, 783-13 Cartridge filters located horizontally in vessel, 883-14 End-, side-, and multiport pressure vessel
27、s, 933-15 Integrated turbopump, 963-16 Integrated turbopump for feed pumping, 973-17 ER impulse turbine, 973-18 PEI hydraulic turbocharger, 983-19 Hydraulic turbocharger for interstage pressure boost, 983-20 Pressure/work exchangers, 1003-21 RO system with isobaric pressure/work exchangers and boost
28、 pumps, 1003-22 10.6 mgd Larnaca Seawater Desalination Plantposttreatment system with limestone filters, 1053-23 Typical membrane cleaning system, 1093-24 Typical spent cleaning solution system, 1093-25 Typical membrane control room, 1113-26 Local control panel at a membrane process area, 1133-27 Di
29、sposal methods for membrane desalination plants, 1213-28 Disposal methods by membrane desalination plant capacity, 1213-29 A majority of the membrane desalination water plants 0.025 mgd are located in four states, 1223-30 Decision tree for disposal of desalination membrane residuals, 1233-31 Deep in
30、jection well shaft, 1303-32 Manual membrane element loading, 150vii3-33 Machine-assisted membrane element loading, 1513-34 Brackish groundwater reference design, 1523-35 Seawater reference design, 1533-36 Economy of scale for RO plant process equipment, 1563-37 O however, these technologiesutilize s
31、emipermeable membranes to primarily target the removal of dissolvedcontaminants via a diffusion-controlled separation process. While RO and NF alsoremove particulate matter, the nonporous, semipermeable membranes can rapidlyfoul when subjected to significant particulate loading. When high pressure i
32、n excessof the natural osmotic gradient of the system is applied to the feed side of themembrane, water is forced through the molecular structure of the membrane surfaceCourtesy of Black thus, theproduct water does not pass through a membrane barrier. ED/EDR has been usedprimarily to desalinate brac
33、kish waters and applied in specialty applications, such as theremoval of fluoride or radionuclides. In addition, because ED/EDR does not affect silicaconcentrations, it may be advantageous in cases in which silica removal is not needed.Additional information about ED/EDR may be found in the AWWA Man
34、ual of PracticeM38: Electrodialysis and Electrodialysis Reversal (1995).4 REVERSE OSMOSIS AND NANOFILTRATIONFigure 1-2 illustrates the removal abilities of the various types of membranetechnology for their respective target drinking water contaminants, based on size ofthe removed compounds. Table 1-
35、1 summarizes some of this same information intabular form, including the various membrane process and target contaminants. Notethat both Figure 1-2 and Table 1-1 focus on the target contaminants, not all thecontaminants that the various membrane technologies are capable of removing. Forexample, whil
36、e RO and NF processes will remove particulate matter, thesetechnologies are generally not applied specifically for this purpose because themembranes will foul rapidly and in many cases irreversibly.History of DevelopmentOne of the first applications for membrane technology was the conversion of seaw
37、aterto drinking water through the use of the RO process. Early generation membraneswere manufactured with cellulose acetate and were much less permeable than thosecurrently used. The disadvantages of early membranes included the high pressurerequired and the low recovery rateonly 10 to 25 percent of
38、 the source water wasconverted to desalinated permeate. These factors resulted in extensive and cost-prohibitive energy requirements.The first commercial application of RO membranes for brackish water desaltingbegan in the early 1960s using the spiral-wound configuration developed in 1967, byGeneral
39、 Atomics. In 1969, E.I. DuPont de Nemours, Inc. (DuPont) introduced theFigure 1-2 Membrane and conventional process overviewSize,Ionic Molecular Macromolecular Microparticle MacroparticleApproximateMolecularWeight0.001 0.01 0.1 1.0 10 100 1,000100 200 1,000 10,000 20,000 100,000 500,000RelativeSize
40、ofVariousMaterials inWaterBacteriaDissolvedSolidsHumic AcidsAlgaeSandSeparationProcessMicrofiltrationUltrafiltrationNFROED/EDRVirusesClaysSiltCystsmINTRODUCTION 5Table 1-1 Membrane processes and target contaminantsMembrane Technology Target Contaminants RemovedMF Giardia CryptosporidiumBacteria Turb
41、idity/particulate matter Coagulated organic matter Inorganic precipitatesUF All contaminants removed by MF, plusViruses Large organic macromoleculesNF Divalent ions/hardness Limited monovalent ions Dissolved organic carbon ColorRO All contaminants removed by NF, plus Monovalent ionsED/EDR Dissolved
42、ionspolyamide hollow fine-fiber membrane in the form of the B-9 permeator for brackishwater desalting. These brackish water modules generally operated in the pressurerange of 300 to 400 psi. The first municipal brackish water RO plant was located atKey Largo, Floridas, Ocean Reef Club. The plant beg
43、an operation in October 1971with an initial operating pressure of 600 psi and a capacity of 0.6 mgd, which waslater expanded to 0.93 mgd.In 1974, DuPont introduced the hollow fine-fiber B-10 permeator, the first ROmembrane capable of producing potable water from typical seawater in a single passat o
44、perating pressures of 800 to 1,000 psi. Spiral-wound, thin-film composite ROmembranes developed for both seawater and brackish water desalting wereintroduced in the mid- to late 1970s. Feed pressures for the early compositemembranes were approximately the same as for the cellulosic and polyamide hol
45、lowfine-fiber modules. Dow Chemical Companys introduction of the low-pressureDowex hollow fine-fiber RO membrane led to a major reduction in the cost ofbrackish water RO facility operation. The first plant to use the new membrane beganoperation in 1981, at Venice, Fla., with a 1 mgd capacity. The Do
46、wex membraneprovided salt rejection and fluxes comparable to the standard pressure cellulosic andpolyamide membranes at roughly one half the operating pressure (200 to 250 psiversus 400 to 600 psi). Low-pressure, thin-film composite, spiral-wound modules were first introduced inthe early 1980s by Fi
47、lmTec Corporation (now part of Dow Chemical Company) andFluid Systems (now part of Koch Membrane Systems). These composite membranes,currently available from a number of supplier firms, are now commonly used, except inapplications in which the better chlorine tolerance of cellulosic membranes is des
48、ired.The expansion of the Englewood Water Districts plant in southwestern Floridaillustrates the evolution of spiral-wound brackish water RO membrane technology. Theoriginal RO process trains (1982) used standard brackish water cellulose acetate blendmembranes operating at 400 to 600 psi. New RO tra
49、ins installed during an initialexpansion in 1986 employed the early generation polyurea composite membranes.During an additional expansion in 1989, the new trains and several of the older unitswere outfitted with more advanced, low-pressure, fully aromatic polyamide compositemembranes. As shown in Table 1-2, the energy required for the RO process in 1989 was 6 REVERSE OSMOSIS AND NANOFILTRATION50 percent less than the original 1982 plant design, a dramatic decrease made possibleby rapid advances in the technology in less than a decade. Train F, i
