1、Science and TechnologyAWWA unites the entire water community by developing and distributing authoritative scientific and technologicalknowledge. Through its members, AWWA develops industry standards for products and processes that advance publichealth and safety. AWWA also provides quality improveme
2、nt programs for water and wastewater utilities.Water Conservation ProgramsA Planning ManualAWWA MANUAL M52First EditionMANUAL OF WATER SUPPLY PRACTICESM52, First EditionWater Conservation ProgramsA Planning ManualCopyright 2006 American Water Works AssociationAll rights reserved. No part of this pub
3、lication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anymeans, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system,except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, without the written permissionof the publisher.DisclaimerThe
4、authors, contributors, editors, and publisher do not assume responsibility for the validity of thecontent or any consequences of their use. In no event will AWWA be liable for direct, indirect, special,incidental, or consequential damages arising out of the use of information presented in this book.
5、 Inparticular, AWWA will not be responsible for any costs, including, but not limited to, those incurred asa result of lost revenue. In no event shall AWWAs liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase ofthis book.Project Manager and Technical Editor: Melissa ChristensenProduction Services and
6、Composition: Claro SystemsManuals Coordinator: Beth BehnerLibrary of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataWater Conservation Programs : a planning manual.- 1st ed.p. cm. - (AWWA manual ; M52)T 2. Appropriate facility rehabilitation or replacement;3. Leak detection and repair;4. Accurate monitoring
7、 of consumption and billing based on meteredusage;5. Full cost pricing;6. Establishment of water-use-efficiency standards for new plumbingfixtures and appliances and the encouragement of conversion ofexisting high-water-use plumbing fixtures to more efficient designs;7. Encouragement of the use of e
8、fficient irrigation systems and landscapematerials;8. Development and use of educational materials on water conservation;9. Public information programs promoting efficient practices and waterconservation by all customers;10. Integrated resource planning;11. Water reuse for appropriate uses; and12. C
9、ontinued research on efficient water use practices. Figure 1-1 AWWA official policy on water use efficiencyINTRODUCTION 3WHY CONSERVE WATER? _There are many reasons for water utilities to pursue wise water use and establish awater conservation program. The specific reasons will be different for each
10、 utility,and the appropriate level of conservation for a utility should be tailored to localneeds. This manual will show utilities how to customize a program to local needs.There is a broad array of reasons to pursue efficient water use. Some examplesfor consideration are included below:Cost savings
11、lowering water production and/or distribution costs will savethe utility and its constituents money in reduced operation cost and possiblydeferred capital costs. Conservation is often an important part of a least-costfuture water supply plan.Wastewater treatment and disposal benefitsreduction of int
12、erior wateruse cuts wastewater flows, resulting in cost savings and lessened environ-mental impacts of treated wastewater disposal.Environmental benefitswater removed from a water body for human usecould be used for environmental and other purposes. For example, protectionof endangered species often
13、 requires a reliable source of good quality water,which might be lessened by water withdrawals.Competing beneficial usesin addition to the environment, water left inplace could be used for agriculture, power production, recreation, aestheticenjoyment, etc.Water supply limitationsfew places now enjoy
14、 unlimited water supplies.Water conservation can stretch existing supplies, whether supply is fromgroundwater or surface water.Utility stewardship and sustainabilityutilities that conserve waterdemonstrate leadership in resource management and are working toward agoal of sustainability. More economi
15、c activity can occur on the same waterresource.Energy savingsreducing water production will save energy and reducegreenhouse gas emissions.Improved supply reliabilityconservation can reduce the frequency andduration of drought water use curtailments by essentially increasing supply.Customer benefits
16、customers who conserve water may enjoy lower waterbills and possibly lower wastewater and energy bills.Regulatory compliancesome state regulatory agencies require waterconservation plans and/or implementation progress to qualify for permits,grants, and loans.Public perceptionthe public often insists
17、 on demonstrating efficient use ofexisting water supplies before supporting expansion of supplies to meet newwater needs.Are There Any Drawbacks to Pursuing Efficient Water Use?Sometimes there are factors that must be carefully weighed before deciding to pursueaggressive conservation. Considerations
18、 may include the following:4 WATER CONSERVATION PROGRAMSA PLANNING MANUALReduction of water use often requires utilities to modify their demand andrevenue forecasts, rates, and/or rate structures.Some utilities need assistance from specialists in water conservation toprovide specific expertise on ho
19、w to implement conservation programs andproperly assess the benefits from such programs. Selling less water seemsunconventional.Many utility billing systems do not support customer sector water use dataneeds and analysis.In some locations, conservation can threaten the “use it or lose it” doctrineof
20、 water law and water rights.This manual attempts to overcome many of these considerations and potentialdrawbacks to enable utilities to pursue new ways to meet the needs of customers orto improve existing methods.TEN STEPS TO DEVELOP A WATER CONSERVATION PLAN _To start a water conservation program,
21、a water conservation plan should bedeveloped. The following ten basic steps outline the activities undertaken in a waterconservation planning effort to develop a cost-effective plan.*1. Review detailed demand forecast2. Review existing water system profile and descriptions of planned facilities3. Ev
22、aluate the effectiveness of existing conservation measures4. Define conservation potential5. Identify conservation measures6. Determine feasible measures7. Perform benefitcost evaluations8. Select and package conservation measures9. Combine overall estimated savings10. Optimize demand forecastsRevie
23、w demand forecast. A baseline forecast of the water use analyses andthe demographic (customer account or population) projections should be created. Theimpacts of current and selected additional conservation measures can be superim-posed on the baseline forecast.Review existing water system profile a
24、nd descriptions of plannedwater supply facilities. As water demands increase, utilities need to maintaininformation necessary to develop and update a system profile from an inventory ofexisting resources and conditions. A review of this information is essential foraccurately targeting water conserva
25、tion measures as appropriate emerging needs, forexample reductions in peak-day water use.Evaluate the effectiveness of existing conservation measures. If existingconservation measures are present in the water use analyses, the degree of currentand prospective conservation stemming from these measure
26、s needs to be quantified.Some of this effect could be naturally occurring if it results from code requirements,*USEPA Water Conservation Planning Guidelines, EPA-832-D-98-001, August 1998INTRODUCTION 5for example, in the US Energy Policy Act of 1992, which requires that replacementfixtures and fitti
27、ngs in new construction are the water-efficient types. Forecasts of theoverall water savings from naturally occurring conservation measures is about 5 to15 percent of total water needs by 2030 (Impact of the National Plumbing EfficiencyStandards on Water Infrastructure Investments California Urban W
28、ater Conserva-tion Council, 2001).Define conservation potential. A detailed assessment of the indoor andoutdoor water use for existing and new customers is essential to determine theconservation potential. A comparison of the water use profile with AwwaRF studies,such as the Residential End Uses of
29、Water Study (AwwaRF, 1999) and theCommercial and Institutional End Uses of Water Study (AwwaRF, 2001), should bemade to identify the potential for additional conservation.Identify water conservation measures. Even though many water conser-vation measures are transferable among locations, water conse
30、rvation measuresshould be tailored on a case-by-case basis to develop the most effective program forlocal conditions within a given service area.Numerous water agencies around the world, particularly in the arid climates(for example the arid parts of the southwestUS), have been implementing watercon
31、servation programs for well over 20 years. General conservation methods, both asinternal utility actions and through customer participation, that can be targetedincludeBasic measures:Public educationCodes and standardsWater waste restrictionsConsumption-based metering and billingWater distribution s
32、ystem improvements (leakage reduction)More advanced measures:Irrigation efficiency improvementsNew home xeriscaping (low water use landscaping)Large landscape irrigation improvementsResidential home water efficienciesLarge commercial efficiency projectsSmall commercial efficiency projectsMunicipal,
33、publicly owned building interior and exterior retrofitsLow-flush toilet replacementsCommercial landscape ordinancesIndustrial and institutional efficiency projectsA conservation rate structure using water budgetsconsumption bench-marking tool against local standardversus individual customer6 WATER C
34、ONSERVATION PROGRAMSA PLANNING MANUALMost utilities that have not implemented a conservation program will want tolook first at the basic measures. After they have some experience, they can proceed tothe more advanced measures.Determine feasible measures. Not all conservation measures will be practi-
35、cally, politically, or economically feasible for a given utility. For example, drought-tolerant landscaping is not suitable for some climates or some utilities; an incliningblock rate structure is not suitable for an unmetered area or where there is strongcustomer resistance; and capital-intensive r
36、eclamation facilities will not provide aneconomic return in smaller communities. To complete the feasibility analysis, thenumber of accounts that could and would use each measure and the specific savingsover time that would accrue to its implementation must be determined. In addition,the existence o
37、f legislative or institutional obstacles to implementation needs to beresearched. Estimates of market penetration are based on measure design andexperience from similar measures implemented by other water utilities.More than 100 individual conservation measures could be implemented amongthe resident
38、ial, commercial, industrial, irrigation, agricultural, and public authorityaccounts in large metropolitan areas. The implementation of conservation programsusually includes customer education, sometimes financial assistance (toilet rebates),sometimes financial incentives (conservation rates), and so
39、metimes legislation(plumbing codes for ULFT replacements). Measures can be qualitatively screened toa shortlist of the most promising measures. The short-listed measures can beevaluated for water savings, benefits, costs, and practicality.Perform benefitcost evaluations. If supply is critical, the b
40、enefits ofconservation are virtually priceless: it is a matter of having enough water foressential indoor residential and commercial needs. Under less extreme circumstances,however, it is necessary to conduct a basic benefitcost analysis that relates the valueof water saved to the cost of implementi
41、ng the program over a useful program life. Afrequent basis for valuing conservation programs is through the benefits associatedwith the delay, downsizing, or averting of new facilities. Some communities engage inmodest conservation efforts as part of public-spirited programs that link withecological
42、 and environmental goals for a better world to live in. Benefits are oftenmeasured from the consumers point of view, usually in terms of less waterconsumption to pay for and less energy cost for heating water.Select and package conservation measures. Individual conservationmeasures should be package
43、d into a comprehensive program for implementation. Thepackage will include that array of justifiable outdoor and indoor measures that meetthe payback criteria and will achieve needed and targeted results. This package mustalso be acceptable to the utility management and governing bodies to be includ
44、ed inlong-range demand forecasts. A stakeholderpublic process should be used to confirmor guide the selection of the best package of measures.Combine overall estimated savings. Once an optimal mix of conservationmeasures has been determined, an overall estimate of program water savings can bedevelop
45、ed with a cautious summation that avoids counting estimated water savingsfrom individual measures more than once (e.g., residential toilet leak water savingsand ULFT replacement). Also, an overall program implementation schedule for thepackage of measures is necessary to determine the timing of cons
46、ervation effects onthe demand forecasts.Optimize demand forecast. The baseline demand forecast should be modi-fied for quantification of demand reductions and graphical comparison of the waterforecast with and without conservation. Modification of demand forecasts may bedone iteratively or simultane
47、ously with different cost-effective packages of conserva-tion measures to meet desired conservation targets. By integrating anticipatedINTRODUCTION 7conservation, utilities can avoid rate revenue surprises. By integrating demand withthe rate forecasters, utilities should recognize that implementing
48、water conservationis successful.DEVELOP A WORK PLAN _Responsibilities of the Water Conservation Program ManagerThe responsibilities of the water conservation program manager are, initially, todevelop the long-range efficiency plan and then organize and direct the variousmeasures that the recommended
49、 program comprises. This begins with preparing awork plan that defines the schedule and budget for each task identified to implementthe plan. In a small utility, the manager will work part-time on water conservationand be responsible for carrying out most tasks. In larger utilities, managers will havethe option of assigning other staff to individual tasks while they coordinate theoverall program.Work PlanImplementation can be a long, slow process, similar to planning, designing, andbuilding capital
