1、Nitrification Prevention and Control in Drinking WaterAWWA MANUAL M56Second EditionCopyright 2013 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.Manual of Water Supply Practices M56, Second Edition Nitrif_ication Prevention and Control in Drinking WaterCopyright 2006, 2013, American Water Wor
2、ks AssociationAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information or retrieval system, except in the form of brief excerpts or quotations for review purposes, witho
3、ut the written permission of the publisher.DisclaimerThe authors, contributors, editors, and publisher do not assume responsibility for the validity of the content or any consequences of its use. In no event will AWWA be liable for direct, indirect, special, incidental, or consequential damages aris
4、ing out of the use of information presented in this book. In particular, AWWA will not be responsible for any costs, including, but not limited to, those incurred as a result of lost revenue. In no event shall AWWAs liability exceed the amount paid for the purchase of this book.Project Manager/Senio
5、r Technical Editor: Melissa ValentineManuals Specialist: Molly BeachCover Art: Melanie YamamotoProduction: TIPS Technical Publishing, Inc.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNitrification prevention and control in drinking water / edited by Jan Routt, Janice Skadsen. - Second edition.p
6、ages cm. - (AWWA manual ; M56)First edition published as: Fundamentals and control of nitrification in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems, copyrighted in 2006.Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 978-1-58321-935-51. Water-Purification-Nitrogen removal. 2. Water-Purification-Chlora
7、mination. 3. Nitrification-Prevention. 4. Denitrification. 5. Drinking water-Contamination-Prevention. I. Routt, Jan. II. Skadsen, Janice. III. American Water Works Association. IV. Fundamentals and control of nitrification in chloraminated drinking water distribution systems. TD427.N5N5855 2013628.
8、1662-dc232012050481ISBN 10: 1-58321-935-8ISBN 13: 978-1-58321-935-5eISBN 10: 1-61300-228-9eISBN 13: 978-1-61300-228-5American Water Works Association6666 West Quincy AvenueDenver, CO 80235-3098303.794.7711www.awwa.org Printed on recycled paperCopyright 2013 American Water Works Association. All Righ
9、ts Reserved.ContentsiiiList of Figures, viiList of Tables, xiiiPreface, xvAcknowledgments, xviiChapter 1 Introduction and Impact on Regulatory Compliance .1Introduction, 1Distribution System Disinfection Practices, 3History of Chloramination In The United States, 5Nitrification Basics, 7Nitrificatio
10、n and Regulatory Compliance, 9Conclusions, 16References, 18Chapter 2 Nitrification in Water and Wastewater Treatment . 21Introduction, 21Drinking Water Nitrification and Impact on Distribution Systems, 21Nitrification in Wastewater Treatment, 32Comparisons Between Nitrification in Water and Wastewat
11、er, 42Conclusions, 44References, 45Chapter 3 Nitrification in Chloraminated Drinking Water Distribution Systems Occurrence 49Introduction, 49Nitrification in Chloraminated Drinking Water Distribution Systems, 51Nitrification in Chloraminated Water Storage Facilities, 57Conclusions, 63Disclaimer, 63R
12、eferences, 64Chapter 4 Overview of Causes and Control of Nitrification in Chloraminated Drinking Water Distribution Systems .67Introduction, 67Conditions Promoting and Limiting Growth of Nitrifying Bacteria in Drinking Water Distribution Systems, 68Chloramine Chemistry As Major Cause of Nitrificatio
13、n, 70Sources and Treatment as Nitrification Causes and Controls, 75Copyright 2013 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.ivDistribution Configuration and Operations as Nitrification Causes and Controls, 87Conclusions, 91Disclaimer, 93References, 94Chapter 5 Microbiology, Isolation, an
14、d Detection of Nitrifying Microorganisms 97Introduction, 97Taxonomy, Morphology, and Physiology of Nitrifying Microorganisms, 98Isolation and Enumeration of Nitrifying Bacteria, 112Conclusions, 117References, 119Chapter 6 Growth and Inactivation of Nitrifying Microorganisms .127Introduction, 127Grow
15、th Conditions for Ammonia- and Nitrite-Oxidizing Bacteria, 127Inactivation by Disinfectants, 139Conclusions, 149References, 150Chapter 7 Monitoring for Nitrification Prevention and Control 155Introduction, 155Monitoring Program Goals and Parameters, 156Relative Usefulness of Monitoring Parameters, 1
16、57Description of Monitoring Parameters, 158Ammonia, Free and Total, 161Monitoring Frequency, 172Conclusions, 174References, 174Chapter 8 Operational and Treatment Practices to Prevent Nitrification . 177Introduction, 177Utility Practices Impacting Nitrification, 180Traditional Approaches to Nitrific
17、ation Prevention, 180Monochloramine Residual, 193Storage Facility Operation, 196Distribution System Operation, 202Alternative Approaches to Nitrification Prevention, 207Assessment of Effectiveness of Preventative Operational Measures, 218Conclusions, 220References, 222Chapter 9 Assessment and Operat
18、ional Responses to Nitrification Episodes . . 227Introduction, 227Copyright 2013 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.vNitrification Assessment, 228Developing a Nitrification Response Plan, 234Responses to Distribution System Nitrification Episodes, 239Responses to Nitrification Epi
19、sodes in Distribution System Storage Facilities, 252Conclusions, 258References, 258Chapter 10 Engineering/Capital Improvements for Nitrification Prevention . . 261Introduction, 261Improvements to Reservoir Mixing and Decrease Water Age, 262Piping, 272Boosting Combined Chlorine Residual in Chloramina
20、ted Distribution Systems, 273Conclusions, 284References, 284Abbreviations (2) 100% conversion of ammonia to nitrite/nitrate-N, 151-4 THM inhibition of nitrification during bench-scale studies,172-1 Ammonia levels before and after biofiltration at ACWD, 282-2 Heterotrophic plate count bacteria releas
21、ed from biologically active drinking water filter and treated with UV, chlorine, and chloramines, 312-3 Integrated fixed film activated sludge system treatment process, 342-4 Integrated fixed film activated sludge system treatment process. Bottom photos (L to R) show a media filled basin and media s
22、ize, 352-5 Cross section of a biologically active wastewater filtration process, 352-6 Illustration of the Dual-Tank SHARON process, 362-7 Typical plastic media used in deammonification MBBR systems. Effective specific surface areas: AnoxKaldnesK1 and K3 media500 m2/m3; BiofilmChipM1,200 m2/m3; Anox
23、K5 media800 m2/m3, 402-8 Deammonification in a biofilm, 412-9 Demon SBR at the Strass WWTP (Austria) left; SBR control strategy right, 422-10 Granulated anammox biomass from a DEMON SBR, 433-1 Nitrification episode in a South Australian distribution system. Relationship between: (a) nitrite and nitr
24、ate concentrations, (b) oxidized nitrogen concentrations, (c) total chlorine residual, and (d) numbers of nitrifying bacteria, 583-2 Seasonal relationship between temperature, AOB, and nitrite in the Orange County reservoir in California, 614-1 Monochloramine decay as a function of Cl/N molar ratio.
25、 Cl/N = 0.5(,), Cl/N = 0.6(,), and Cl/N = 0.7(,). Open symbols are for pH7.5 and filled symbols are for pH6.5 NH2Cl0= 0.05 mM, CT,CO3= 4 mM, = 0.1 M, T=25C, 734-2 Effect of pH on monocloramine decay (autodecomposition) as a function of pH at 25C; 4mg/L Cl2= 0.056 mM NH2Cl, 75Copyright 2013 American
26、Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.viii4-3 Effect of total carbonate concentration on monochloramine decay at (A) pH6.6, (B) pH7.6, and (C) pH8.3. Cl/N = 0.7 mol mol1, = 0.1 M, T = 25C, 764-4 Effect of temperature on monochloramine decomposition. Cl/N = 0.7 mol mol1, pH = 7.5, CT,CO3= 10 m
27、M, = 0.1 M, 774-5 Effect of 03mgL1bromide on monochloramine decomposition at pH7.5. Cl/N = 0.7 mol/mol, CT,CO3= 4 mM, = 0.1 M, T = 25C, 774-6 Impact of bromide on chloramine decay, 784-7 Impact of coagulation of ozonation on chloramine demand. Chloramine demand/decay profile: 20C, pH = 8.9, 804-8 Ef
28、fect of TOC removal by GAC adsorption on chloramine demand. Ozonated, filtered effluent and GAC effluent blends; 20C, pH = 8.5, 814-9 Effect of inert and biologically active filtration on chloramine demand. Ozanated and filtered water; 20C, pH = 8.5, 844-10 Effect of membrane filtration on chloramin
29、e demand. Settled, ozonated, and biofiltered (old GAC/sand) water, pH = 8.7; 20C (no free Cl2contact time), 854-11 Effect of postfilter chlorine dioxide dose on chloramine demand. Filter effluent; TOC 3.2 mg/L, O3 0 mg/L, pH 8.5, 20C, 865-1 Phylogenetic tree of AOB based on multiple alignment of 55
30、nearly full-length AOB 16S rDNA sequences. Abbreviations are Nm for Nitrosomonas, Nc for Nitrosococcus, and Ns for Nitrosospira. R. eutropha is a non-AOB member of the Betaproteobacteria subphylum. Scale bar represents 10% sequence difference, 1005-2 Nitrosomonas europaea ATCC 25978; phase-contrast
31、photomicrograph (bar, 5 m), 1035-3 Nitrosomonas species terrestrial strains; phase-contrast photomicrograph (bar, 5 m), 1035-4 Nitrosomonas species isolated from a drinking water reservoir; transmission electron micrograph (bar, 0.1 m), 1045-5 Nitrosospira briensis negatively stained cell; electron
32、micrograph (bar, 1 m), 1045-6 Phylogenetic tree of NOB based on a multiple alignment of 40 NOB 16S rDNA sequences. Abbreviations are Nb for Nitrobacter and Nsr for Nitrospira. Rh. capsulatus is in the Alphaproteobacteria class, R. eutropha is in the Betaproteobacteria class, and E. coli is in the Ga
33、mmaproteobacteriaclass. Scale bar represents 10% sequence difference, 1055-7 Nitrococcus mobilis (bar, 5 m), 1075-8 Nitrifying bacterial zoogloea (loose aggregate of Nitrosomonas europaea cells); electron micrograph (bar, 1 m), 109Copyright 2013 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.
34、ix5-9 Nitrifying bacterial cyst (compact aggregate of Nitrosomonas europaea cells); electron micrograph (bar, 1m), 1095-10 Typical microprofiles of oxygen, ammonium ion, nitrite, and nitrate concentrations in nitrifying aggregates. The gray area marks the zone with nitrifying activity; negative dist
35、ance indicates water phase and positive distance represents the biofilm, 1116-1 Generalized graph of Monod and Haldane kinetics, showing the comparative specific growth rate of an ammonia-insensitive strain characterized by Monod kinetics ( = 1 d-1, Ks= 10 mg N/L) and an ammonia-sensitive strain cha
36、racterized by Haldane kinetics ( = 0.5 d-1, Ks= 1 mg N/L, Ki= 100 mg N/L), 1316-2 Optimum temperature as a function of substrate concentration. (Note: The circles indicate the optimum temperatures corresponding to a substrate concentration of 1 mg/L N.) 1356-3 Maximum rate of oxidation as a function
37、 of substrate concentration, 1356-4 Effect of pH on maximum specific growth rate of Nitrobacter species, 1366-5 Effect of temperature and pH on unionized ammonia (NH3), 1376-6 The pH dependence of the ammonia oxidation maximum-velocity coefficient for Nitrosomonas europaea, 1386-7 The pH dependence
38、of the ammonia oxidation rate for Nitrosomonas europaea, 1386-8 Inactivation of nitrifying bacteria by monochloramine, 1426-9 Relationship between the first-order inactivation rate constant and pH, 1446-10 Data and fitted regression plots for BacLight-based Nitrosomonas europaea inactivation experim
39、ents using the ChickWatson model (n = 1), 1446-11 Distribution of mono- and dichloramine as a function of pH, 1456-12 Distribution of hypochlorous acid and hypochlorite ion as a function of pH, 1467-1 HPC-plate count agar as an indicator of nitrification at various total chlorine and nitrite levels
40、in a California distribution system, 1677-2 HPC-R2A as an indicator of nitrification at various total chlorine and nitrite levels in a California distribution system, 1687-3 Relative counts: Plate count agar versus R2A agar in a Florida distribution system, 1688-1 Utility practices and perceptions r
41、egarding prevention of nitrification. Number of responding utilities = 50, 1818-2 Correlations between free ammonia, temperature, total chlorine residual, and nitrite concentration, 181Copyright 2013 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.x8-3 Example of an aqua ammonia(ammonium hydro
42、xide) storage tank and metering pump, 1848-4 Example of an anhydrous ammonia feed system, 1858-5 Calcium carbonate precipitation removed from an ammonia injector, 1878-6 Direct ammonia feed system, 1898-7 Example of control schematic for monochloramine formation, 1908-8 Comparison of ammonia feed ra
43、tes (as pumped) versus stock used (as weight). A problem is indicated by the diverging hypothetical data late in themonth, 1928-9 Example of stratification and temperature monitoring in a storage facility, 1978-10 The effect of inlet momentum on mixing characteristics of a 1-mil gal elevated storage
44、 tank using CFD modeling, 1998-11 Difference in flow pattern and pipe velocity with conventional and unidirectionalflushing. The numbers on the charts are water velocities in ft/sec, 2038-12 Example of programmable auto flush device, 2058-13 Relationships between total chlorine residual and HPC leve
45、ls with booster chloramination at Golden State Water Company, 2088-14 Impact of boosterchloramination on nitrification, 2088-15 Reduction in nitrite levels following water blending, 2108-16 Correlation of pH and nitrite at a distribution system sampling location, 2128-17 Limited nitrification in Ann
46、 Arbor Water System after 15 years of operation at pH 9.3, 2138-18 Monochloramine stability and pH, 2148-19 Free ammonia and pH, 2148-20 Survival of AOB as affected by chlorite ion, 2168-21 Control of Nitrification by use of chlorite ion, 2168-22 Loss of nitrification control in the presence of chlo
47、rite ion, 2178-23 Nitrification control by use of chlorite ion in Louisville Water System, 2188-24 Photo of full-scale UV light application in storage facility, 2198-25 Low Intensity UVA Radiation Installed in Storage Facility for Inhibition of Nitrification at LA, 2209-1 Nitrification assessment fl
48、owchart, 2319-2 Example of distribution system nitrification assessment, 2349-3 Example of nitrification response decision tree, 2379-4 Utility survey of effectiveness of various nitrification responses, 238Copyright 2013 American Water Works Association. All Rights Reserved.xi9-5 Ideal breakpoint c
49、urve, 2399-6 Example of system-wide breakpoint chlorination protocol, 2429-7 Steps in the dechlorination procedure (continued on next page), 2509-7 Steps in the dechlorination procedure (continued), 2519-8 Example of storage tank breakpoint chlorination procedure, 25510-1 CFD Modeling of water standpipe mixing for horizotal and vertical inlet pipe orientation after 30 minutes of fill time at 2,000 gpm, 26410-2 CFD Modeling of a large reservoir water age and mixing for different inlet configur
